Educational campaigns to raise awareness of poverty ..... Resettling aid schemes - Land, facilities, tools and seeds to
Core Human Geography Topical Notes (Incomplete) Lim Ting Jie - VS Class of 2011
2012
TOPIC 1: DEVELOPMENT 1. Development terminologies Development Standard of living Quality of life Core Periphery Cumulative causation Multiplier effect Backwash effect Spread effect
Improvements in quality of life and standard of living Living conditions or conditions in which people live A measurement of the satisfaction with one’s living conditions and lifestyle Region that has a high concentration of people, wealth and standard of living Region that has a low concentration of people, little wealth and sol. Increase in wealth of the core due to more economic activities from the movement of people and resources from the periphery Result of the initial development of the core that comes with benefits to drive development Flow of labour and other resources from the periphery to the core Spread of wealth and knowledge from the core to periphery, assisting economic development in the periphery
2. Core Periphery Theory
1 2
Core (or DCs) Availability of jobs High concentration of secondary and tertiary industries
3
Urbanised with good infrastructure
4
High concentration of wealth
Finished products, investments, wealth, knowledge
Spread 1
Periphery (or LDCs) Fewer jobs, services and investments
2
High concentration of primary industries
Backwash
3
Labour and raw materials
4
High standard of living
Full access to healthcare and education
High quality of life
Good infrastructure with many transport and communication systems Good social benefits with health plans and tax rebates Access to leisure facilities
Backwash Cumulative causation Singapore 1. Attracted workers from periphery countries like Bangladesh and Philippines 2. Developed quickly 3. Periphery drained of labour, hindering development in the periphery countries
1. 2. 3. 4.
Limited infrastructure like roads and piped water Weak and poor economy
Low percentage of population have access to healthcare and education Poor infrastructure with few transport and communication lines and constant congestion Lack of social benefits
Low standard of living Low quality of life
High pollution, little access to leisure facilities
Spread Centrifugal growth Thailand developed automobile industry in late 1990s Japanese car manufacturing companies moved their factories to Thailand to reduce manufacturing costs Local people picked up knowledge and skills in automobile manufacturing from Japanese counterparts Investments from Japan 5. Japanese car manufacturers benefited helped Thailand’s with cheap labour costs by employing economy grow (spread) Thai workers (centrifugal growth)
3. Explaining development indicators
Employment structure
Economic
Effective Industrial level - High availability of industries - Wide variety of services and food - Potentially generate more income for citizens Level of wealth - Tertiary and secondary industries involve manufacturing machines and trained workers, creation of the various industries require money - Countries with this wealth can Wealth of citizens - Trained and knowledgeable workers will gain higher salary - Goods produced in tertiary and secondary generate more income as It is more value-added
Ineffective Only a ratio - A country may have a less people employed in the SAT industry compared to another, but more people by proportion to primary industry - Inaccurate to conclude that the country is more developed
Income per capita Life expectancy
Employment opportunities
Economic
Effective
Industrial level - More developed country - Added goods and services from secondary and tertiary industries - Finished products instead of raw materials - Generate more income - Higher GNP per capita Higher standard of living - More money Greater ability to build education, healthcare and sanitation facilities - Higher quality of life for people
Purchasing power - High levels of wealth of people - Demand for good and services high - Expansion of businesses and infrastructure seen to generate revenue - High employment opportunities - Lower long-term employment levels in workforce
Level of healthcare and sanitation - People can live longer due to availability of healthcare and proper sanitation resulting in proper hygiene levels. Level of wealth - Countries with higher life expectancy are usually DCs - Government can afford to build healthcare facilities and proper sanitation - People can afford to pay for such services
*Ineffective Average GNP per capita figure - May appear large although majority of country’s citizens are living in poverty - Large income gap between the extremely rich and the extremely poor Informal economic activities - Activities such as tutoring services, street hawking are not registered with the government - GNP per capita appears lower Social and environmental costs - E.g. Increasing income gap between the rich and poor - E.g. Air pollution which came with development
Infant mortality rate Water supply & sanitation
Sanitation & healthcare systems - Easier accessibility to sanitation and healthcare services - Higher availability of such services Wars or droughts in LDCS - Cause a shortage of food - Babies die from famine or malnutrition
Wealth of country - Country able to provide proper sanitation and safe water supply for its citizens
Literacy rate
Education
Health
\
Wealth of country - Many financial resources of a country available to meet educational needs of its people - More schools built, more teachers can be trained - Cost of education can be subsidised
Unable to compare between LDCs - Social customs in LDC may result in limited female’s access to education - Lower literacy rate - Few schools are built as children have to help out on the farms.
4. Cumulative Causation Development of new industry in core Employment Jobs created level A. Full A. Creation of employment jobs result in opportunities more income B. Wide range B. Attracts of skills and youthful youthful workers from workers the periphery C. Population in search of required jobs increases
Further development of commercial and economic activities Demand of goods and Public services Businesses Wealth level services and facilities A. Increase in income, Increases across A. Increases due A. Transport and affordability and research and to higher healthcare purchasing power development and paying jobs expands B. Increase in size of within goods and B. Improved B. Higher domestic market super marts infrastructure standard of C. Greater secondary like more living and tertiary community C. Government activities like in centres built collect more health, taxes entertainment, education and retail sectors
Greater demand for goods and services Industrial Support for goods and services growth A. Linkages to Old industries support revamped to production and more tertiary distribution and quaternary established for industries exports to overseas world markets B. Allow for more innovation and invention
5. Factors influencing level of development Factors Colonial history Raw materials Climate
Physical
Historical
Description Colonial powers tend to develop countries colonised to obtain raw materials with basic infrastructure like railway system and industries like mining and rubber plantations Outflow of natural resources resulted in colonies being unable to develop their economy fully as they were very dependent on their colonial government politically & economically Countries that were colonised because of their strategic locations for control of important trade routes in the past were able to develop faster As compared to countries that were colonised because of their raw materials.
Countries that have plenty of raw materials develop faster than countries that have few or no materials. Money earned from selling the raw materials, like timber and crude oil, can be spent on projects to develop the country Temperate climate usually favours the growth of crops People grow these crops on a large scale for sale in their countries and export overseas Harsh climates with constant disasters result in people having to constantly rebuild their homelands and hindering development and revenue from tourism
Examples The Portuguese colonised Angola in 1500s to set up cotton, coffee and cocoa plantations by exploiting favourable physical conditions and availability of labour. Cash crops exported to Europe for sale at high prices. Singapore was colonised by the British due to its location along the Straits of Malacca. The British developed its port and city by setting up schools , building infrastructure & investing in businesses. Norway, ranked first in HDI, is well-endowed with natural resources like oil from the North Sea off its shore Able to use money generated to improve infrastructure like roads, housing and water treatment plants Cool and moist climate in Canada and USA is suitable for growing many important crops like wheat and oat China experiences floods every year along major rivers, killing 1000 and losses of US$12.6 billion in 2005
Factors Cumulative causation
Economic
Description Investments in industries create jobs that encourage an inflow of workers and triggering a local demand for goods and services. Revenue gained from expansion of industries allows government to improve infrastructure With a multiplier effect, investors from urban centres who seek to provide their goods and services are attracted, enhancing the economic activities and wealth generated in the area
Examples
Thailand development of a automobile industry in late 1990s attracted Japanese car manufacturing companies to shift factories to there to reduce manufacturing costs
Social
Education
Population growth rate
Lack of trained teachers and facilities in LDCs result in lower percentage of population able to get the necessary education and low literacy rates People with little formal education face difficulties learning new skills and embracing modern technology Shortage of skilled labour hinders development of industries Effects of high birthrates cause development of country to slow down as more resources have to be given to provide healthcare, food and education for the youthful population Less resources available for improving quality of life for the general population Fewer children show a higher cost of living, higher standard of living and changing lifestyle preferences
Populations of Kenya, Nigeria and Ethiopia increase approximately 3% per year at a much faster rate than DCs like Norway and Japan of 0.5% per year.
Political
Conflict
Leadership
Stable government attracts more MNCs by creating stable and peaceful environment for business to develop. Investments will not be at risk in changes of political leadership with no internal struggles for power Assured that no bribes will be needed to set up businesses in the country.
Countries that are progressing well in their economic, health and education sectors are run by efficient and development-oriented governments. These governments are forward-looking and dedicated to meeting the needs and aspirations of their people, ensuring maximum development.
Italy has a high GDP per capita of about US$28 000 in 2005 and 98.5% literacy rate Due to long history of placing a strong emphasis on education - Has wealth to build schools and train teachers to educate its people Sierra Leone has a low literacy rate of 30% as it has little money to spend on education with a GDP per capita of only US$548. Much of the population is involved in agriculture, little effort to provide opportunities for rural people to learn to read and write
Sierra Leone has experienced political conflict and social instability due to a civil war in the 1970s that killed 1.7 million people. Sierra Leone being one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. The HDI of Sierra Leone was ranked second from the bottom in 2005. Long history of political stability and peace. Local businesses have flourished with foreign investors having confidence in setting up businesses. Switzerland had a GDP of US$30 552 in 2005. Norwegian government set a profit cap for petroleum producers The rest of the money earned goes to the people of Norway Ensures that wealth generated from Norway’s petroleum industry is shared among its people. Norway ranked first in HDI in 2005
6.
Measures to alleviate uneven development internationally Example
Effectiveness
Alleviate development Reduces poverty Increases quality of life 67 member countries in the Asia-Pacific region 5. Monetary loans and technical assistance.
1. Bridge of Jamuna Multipurpose Bridge Project of Bangladesh 2. Connects less developed northwestern region to more developed regions 3. Financial and technical support include roads, railways, gas pipelines and telecommunication lines 4. Less traffic congestion allows farmers to transport their produce to markets for sale.
1. Greater industrailisation from alleviating development 2. At the expense of degradation of the environment such as deforestation, depletion of minerals, and environmental pollution 3. Global warming will be more fatal to the world than issues of poverty in the long run.
1. International agreement 2. Other countries pledged their commitment 3. Aim to help LDCs get out of poverty by 2015 4. Encompass social, demographic and economic goals
1. Poverty and hunger-stricken Vietnam 2. Increased access to basic social services for the poor 3. Educational campaigns to raise awareness of poverty in the country 4. Pressure on the government to create jobs and increase income
1. Conflicts of interest present 2. Most investments made in the country trap farmers and their children to work on the farms with low wages 3. They cannot afford to send their children to schools for education
1. Adopted by more than 160 countries 2. Control usage of seas and oceans in the world for sustainable use them 3. So that they will not be depleted
1. Coastal LDC Peru 2. Fishing industry is important to its economy 3. Law disallows larger fishing boats from surrounding DCs, that can spot and collect fish underwater easily, from fishing at Peru’s seas without permission 4. Allows the poor fishermen to make a living and maintain their livelihood
1. Landlocked countries like Bolivia in South America do not benefit from it 2. Allows other American countries to develop at a faster rate than it 3. Alleviation of development between LDCs and DCs would not be complete
Asian Development Bank
World Bank
1. Kecamatan Development Programme in Sleepy Tirtomoyo, Indonesia 2. Provides financial aid and water 3. Locals to dig wells to tap on underground water sources and build pipelines.
1. Some countries in need might not voice out 2. Not agree to some of the ways they should handle problems 3. Sudden rise of food prices in the world in January 2011, countries like Thailand and Africa tended to impose import taxes on foreign goods to get money 4. Did not realise this selfish acts will only aggravate the malnutrition situation in the world
UN Millennium Development Goals
Description
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
International agreements
International organisations
Way Org
1. Aid to less developed countries 2. Social or Economical help 3. Aid and money 4. Including loans with low or no interest 1. 2. 3. 4.
7. Measures to alleviate uneven development internationally
Plan
Social Water supply and Sanitation Parivartan Slum Networking Programme in Ahmedabad of Gurjarat, India
Education
Demographic Population control
Economic Job creation
Hill Tribe Education Project in Thailand
One Child Policy in China
KALAHI ‘Linking Arms Against Poverty’ in the Philippines
Results
Besides general underdeveloped characteristics, the area lacks basic minimum education and insufficient skills with low income and poor standard of living. Water supply to individual households. Underground sewerage connection to individual households. Toilets to individual households. Training was provided to teach villagers proper usage of new facilities
Northern hill tribes like Karen and Yao were introduced to formal and informal education programmes to suit the needs of their communities. A community learning centre was built in each village open to children and adults. To promote literacy, the Thai language, Mathematics and life and social skills were taught.
The Chinese government discovered in the 1970s that there was an increasing rate of population growth that could result in overpopulation to hinder further development. Therefore, the One Child policy was implemented to limit every couple to have only one child. Volunteers were recruited to promote late marriages, late childbearing and teach proper contraception methods to keep birth rates low. Fertility rates in China fell, especially in urban areas
Pro-poor policies were implemented to help more people set up and run small businesses, usually run by families. The ultra-poor were given interest free loans and leadership and selfemployment training to help them run businesses effectively. The government also obliged banks to allocate part of their credit loans to be given to poor farmers and entrepreneurs.
Limitations
The slums were not developed on priority basis. The slum networking basically deals with notified slum and not with the other poor settlements, and because of lack of funds the project could only be carried out in phases. It took 5 years for death rates to drop by almost half. While it benefited some slums, majority are still deprived of clean water and sanitation facilities
Hill tribes live in small communities and in geographical isolation. It is difficult for the government to reach out to the large population in the community. Communication barriers between the hill tribes and lack of volunteer teachers have been time consuming and a great challenge to this project.
It is more difficult to implement this policy in the rural areas of China as couples in the region required more children for additional help their farms to make a living. Many of the couples would want a son and hence tend to continue bearing until they succeeded in having a son. With more males than females eventually, gender imbalance might not allow sufficient people to take care of the elderly in the future.
Products and skills of the poor not diversified as yet. The poor requires greater market access in order to get more people to purchase their goods and services, as competition still exists among the poor. More volunteers are needed to reach out to those living in areas that are difficult to reach.
TOPIC 2: GEOGRAPHY OF FOOD 1. Trends in Food Production and Distribution LDCs
Description
Levels of food consumption
Changing food preferences
Less carbohydrates in diets
More nonstaple food
LDCs consume less food than DCs
Increased food consumption in the world
Evidence
DCs
Mainly obtained from staple food making up important part of diet Decreasing in proportion although still makes up large proportion
More non-staple food like meat, fish and coffee Consists largely of proteins and fats More common in urban areas
Poorest 20% in the world’s population Consumes only about 5% of meat and fish in the world
Efforts to increase supply of food Green revolution General increase on amount of food consumed
76% carbohydrates in 1971 to 1973 in LDCs 68% carbohydrates in 1999 to 2001 in LDCs
More healthy food
5% to 10% proteins 10% to 15% fats from 1972 to 2000 High-fat diet urban China citizens from 33% to 61% 1991 to 1997
Larger variety of food
Food consumption per capita of Africa Lower than 2200 kCal/person/day
DCs consume more food than LDCs
Mid-1960s to 1990s Sub Saharan African region Increased by 137 kCal/person/day
Increased food consumption in the world
Description Increasing levels of healthconsciousness Moving away from high-fat products Olive oil reducing risks of heart disease Organic food found to be healthier choice People in DCs becoming more exposed to different types of food around the world Globalisation has increased due to faster transports and advanced communications Fusion food popular
Evidence Though high consumption of meat Proportion of fats in USA diet fell from 33% to 26% from 1950s to 2000 Consumption and imports of olive oil more than doubled from 1995 to 2005 Sales of organic food tripled over the last five years in UK Asian person exposed to American fast food may choose to eat more bread or potato than rice Thai food in UK, Mediterranean food in Canada is common Americans introduced to sushi in the 1970s, LA chefs developed California roll, replacing the raw fish in sushi
Richest 20% in the world’s population Consumes nearly half meat and fish in the world
Food consumption per capita of North America & Europe Exceeds 3400 kCal/person/day
Efforts to increase supply of food Green revolution General increase on amount of food consumed
Mid-1960s to 1990s East Asian region Increased by 964 kCal/person/day
2. Reasons for variations of food production
Purchasing power
Description People in DCs generally have higher incomes Greater purchasing power - More likely to be able to buy enough food - Meet basic nutritional needs -Wider variety of food - LDCs improving financial conditions in urban areas by cumulative causation DCs can set aside and store food - Economically well-to-do - Buy extra food and storage facilities Control food supply in market - Less effect during crop failure or food disruption - Low risk
East Asia food consumption - Increased 827 kCal/person/day more than Sub-Saharan Africa did - Mid-1960s to 1990s High-fat diet urban China citizens - Increased 33% to 61% from 1991 to 1997 East Asian Emergency Rise Reserve (EAERR) started in 2004 Member countries like Vietnam and Singapore contribute certain quantity of rice to a reserve - Used during emergencies like disasters
Conflicts and riots Natural causes
Hurricane Katrina in 2005 - Destroyed much farmland and livestock in southwestern USA - Left people without food Spread of bird flu in Asia in late 2003 - Over 20 million poultry destroyed by dying or being culled - Shortage of poultry meat Lack of transport routes especially in rural areas of LDCs and congestion in LDCs like India - Decrease time for transport Landslides like those from 1999 Taiwan earthquake - May make some areas inaccessible
Transport facilities
Absence of transport facilities in LDCs - Hinder food distribution - Prevents access to food But improvements and additions in transport Cross rivers by bridges and mountains by planes Advancements in trans.comm - Increase exchange of information, ideas, cultures and values - Companies expand food business by opening outlets abroad But access in LDCs often limited to urban areas where there are more food outlets and better transport and communications networks in place.
Trade
Second Congo War in Democratic Republic of Congo from 1998 - 3.6 million dead from starvation and easily preventable diseases
Droughts, floods, earthquakes or hurricanes Wipe out entire harvests easily - Severe food shortages - Lower food supply
People have greater access to food from around the world - Trade barriers limit trade between countries - Access to food will be affected
Few places selling food in LDCs - Limited variety and quantity of food - Grown locally or imported from other countries based on globalisation
Globalisation
Examples
Conflicts among nations - Crops and livestock destroyed - Farmers abandon fields - Threaten food supply and security
Food outlets
Accessibility of food
Stability of food supply
Stock piling
Affordability
Reason
Americans were introduced to sushi in the 1970s Los Angeles chefs developed California roll, replacing the raw fish in sushi with cucumber, cooked crabmeat and avocado
In China, it is easier to find restaurants and fast food chains offering wide variety of food - In cities like Shanghai Compared to rural regions like Inner Mongolia. UN prohibited countries from trading w/Iraq aft ‘91 Gulf War Significant decrease in imports of food and farming inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides into Iraq
Result Greater consumption of food Non-staple food, since more expensive, increasing in consumption than staple food in urban areas of LDCs Improved food security Better stability of food in DCs DCs not self-sufficient able to tackle food emergencies Unstable food supply Lower food security - People unable to obtain enough food of acceptable quality and variety readily Countries not self-sufficient like Singapore and Japan which rely on food imports affected adversely Lower levels of food consumption in LDCs Temporary cut-off of ability to obtain food needed
Larger variety of food in DCs More healthy food in DCs Increased food consumption in the world
Variety of food minimised temporarily Food supply affected slightly
3. Impacts of Variations of Food consumption Starvation
70% of most Sub-Saharan African countries like Somalia
Malnutrition Late 1990s Davao City in the Philippines, widespread deficiencies in iodine, iron and Vitamin A - Slow growth for children and low energy for adults
Obesity
400 million obese, USA has 32% adults obese
Description People do not receive enough energy from their diet due to severe shortage of food Poor harvest and low purchasing power are factors People consume an imbalanced amount of nutrients over a period of time. Anorexia nervosa, starving oneself forcibly, and bulimia, vomiting everything that was just eaten by a person, are factors relating to this, including low purchasing power
Effects Bodies become skeletally thin Muscle tissues burnt for energy Organs may become permanently damaged Bodies are weakened Lower resistance to common illnesses Damage to internal organs due to low vitamin D, calcium that result in poor teeth and deformed bones Inevitable eventual death Rickets and anaemia due to low iron levels
People consume much more nutrients than a body can use, body fat exceeds one-third of one’s weight This can be attributed to growing affluence in LDCs
High blood pressure Diabetes Heart disease
4. Factors Affecting Intensity of Food Production
GM Food Crops (LORMs) #
Technological
Political Government policies
Effective High technology farming - Aeroponics and hydroponics, more efficient, less pollution, higher out per unit area
Examples Oh Chin Huat farms, Singapore
Resettling aid schemes - Land, facilities, tools and seeds to help farmers resettle in new farm areas
Federal Land Development Authority, Malaysia
Increases income for farmers - GM food crops are generally fresher and more resistant to pests and low rainfall
Pest resistant corns created with Bt, fewer crops damaged, more output, income
Increases food supply - Some GM crops are able to produce higher outputs than non-GM Reduces environmental pollution - Pest-resistant GM Crops, less use of chemicals, like non-ozonefriendly ones
Super Rice produces double the output of normal rice Lowa, USA, eutrophication due to high amounts of fertilisers
Ineffective (*or problems) Examples Limitations in fish catch (both sides) - Country’s amount and type of fish is European Union adopted Common regulated, fish caught limited, Fisheries Policy ensures enough fish in future Bans on GM Food - Farmers will lose Zambia rejected GM food imports, fear chance to increase income and food health impact supply Some people fear that they may unknowingly consume potatoes *Potential health risks - Some food containing Lectin, which prevents substances may cause unknown successful aphid attacks. allergies as they are not natural GM Pea caused health problems in research mice. Monarch butterflies which fed on *Loss of biodiversity - More species plants that were dusted with Bt corn become endangered and extinct, pollen had larvae growing slower and greater loss of variety of living things dying at a faster rate than butterflies in an ecosystem which did not, possibly affect animals higher up the food chain
Blue Rev.
HYVs (G Rev)
Technological Modern Irrigation (G Rev)
Chemicals (G Rev)
^GM Food
Effective Improves nutritional value Nutrients and vitamins added to prevent common illnesses and diseases
Golden Rice enriched with beta*Loss of natural species - Some GM crops carotene, more Vitamin A, hinders genetically pollute natural crops that are not GM, blindness and death may result in superweeds
Fertilisers - Substances added to soil to provide nutrients for healthy plant growth Pesticides - Toxic chemicals destroying pests which affect crop growth
Arsenic is used by farmers in India to poison rats attacking rice crops
Herbicides - Toxic chemicals destroying weeds competing for nutrients in the soil Overcomes physical limitations Water is supplied to land through artificial means. Dams, canals divert water from rivers and reservoirs to farms. Increases crop output - Automated irrigation systems may use water sprinklers and sluice gates to control water usage Cross breeding a range of rice, wheat, cereal strains - More pest resistant or shorter growth durations, higher yield and outputs per unit area Encourages fish farming - Farmers rear fish in ponds or enclosed areas under special conditions promoting growth instead of catching fish from oceans
Ineffective (*or problems)
*Eutrophication of water bodies - Excess fertilisers in water bodies cause rapid growth of algae, reducing oxygen supply *Water pollution - Contaminates water bodies, reducing quality of water, harming aquatic plants and animals, and animals which consume them and the water *Imbalance of soil nutrients - Chemical fertilisers supply 2-3/>20 essential nutrients, which excludes humus, unable to restore nutrients loss, lowering soil fertility
A herbicide-resistant strain of the Charlock weed was compatible to and therefore genetically polluted by herbicide-resistant rapeseed plant Lowa, USA, Algae grows rapidly on surface, blocking of oxygen and sunlight Distribution of drinking water from a dam near Rennes, France, was stopped by public health authorities due to pesticide contamination
Farmers in India, with seasonal, irregular rainfall, can grow 2 to 3 crops instead of 1 per year
*Salinisation of soil - Salts are built up within the soil through flood irrigation, use of dams and groundwater when water contains natural dissolved salts
Aswan High Dam across River Nile, Egypt, disrupts flow of water, causing minerals trapped in reservior to dissolve into water, salinity of soil will be too high for crop growth
Farmers in Turkey use spray irrigation, drip amounts of water just sufficient for healthy crop growth, save water
*Waterlogging - Too much water used in fields, soil becomes saturated with water - Air and nutrients unable to reach crops - They wither and die
Pakistan and India, farmers use excess water to deal with salinisation but this over-irrigates the fields
Sophisticated - Cultivation and maturing process China’s rice output >doubled from complicated - Farmers unable to follow procedures 1961 to 1992 & Indonesia’s rice accurately output increased 80% from 1970 Expensive - Large quantities of chemicals have to to 1990. be used - Less well-off farmers cannot afford Central Institute of Freshwater Medicines and vaccines - Medicines and vaccines Aquaculture in India - 500 have to be used to improve the health & nutrition hatcheries and laboratories of fish since viruses can spread rapidly if present conduct research on species like *Destruction of coastal mangroves - Mangroves prawns and carp - 30% of fish are replaced by farms - coastal erosion more likely harvest is supplied commercially
Although cereal crops increased significantly in LDCs like Mexico and India, it has increased rural unemployment due to less manual labour needed Thousands of kilometres of destroyed in Philippines, Indonesia and Ecuador to create fish and shrimp farms
Relief Climate
Physical Soil
Soil erosion - In some countries that experience snow or earthquakes with steep relief - Nutrients is soil are washed away during soil erosion - Arable land is not enough for people to grow land to meet nutritional needs.
China and Korea, land fragmentation, more labour required, productivity low
Brazil, landlords make up 2% of population but own 42% of the land
Demand
*Low temperature and rainfall (cool and dry climate) - Temperature regions enable crops like wheat and potatoes to grow without too much water and fish like salmon to grow and reproduce well. Father divides land into smaller plots equally among children traditionally Resultant plots very small over generations - Limited output - Unprofitable for expensive machines Farmers usually do not own land they farm in LDCs - By governments or landlords - Farmers to give much of harvest - Little motivation for farmers to improve farming methods
Effective Gentle and flat - Soil erosion less likely, nutrients not lost easily, land remains Canadian Prairies, Canada, farming fertile - Tractors and harvesters operated with ease - No labour needed for terraces Nutrients in soil is washed Fertility of soil - Floodplains, river deltas Volcanic ash deposited around Mount away by constant melting with large amounts of air, water essential Mayon, Philippines, from time to time snow and heavy rainfall in for plant growth and nutrients like cause soil around the area to be fertile, certain parts in the Himalayas, phosphorus, iron and zinc to help plant favourable for cultivation of crops as Andes. Two-thirds of total growth - Near volcanoes with ash rich in less fallowing time is needed households suffer from minerals malnutrition. Type of soil - Different types of soil are Wet rice is more likely to be found on required by different types of crops floodplains and river deltas and wet and clayey soil is found. Bangladesh In Hunza, Pakinstan, potatoes farmers grow wet rice on a flooded are grown largely in farms High temperature and rainfall (hot and field and are able to produce two or where they are 2000m above wet) - Output is higher is general as sea level. Salmon farms are conditions are favourable for plant growth. more successive crops in the same year. popular in Ireland and USA.
High demand for food - Encourage food producers to increase their output and productivity - More employment and more money is earned
Capital
Social Land Tenure Land Fragmentation Economic
Ineffective [*or effective of inverse (boxed up) ] *Steep relief - In this way, soil is better Tea plantations are a common drained, for proper tea cultivation of sight in Cameron Highlands, certain crops Malaysia
Large amount of capital - Needed for farming machines, fertilisers, pesticides, sonar for fish detection - More money to start or expand food production - Loans let farmers upgrade farming methods
Coffee is high in demand for ~25 mil people in LDCs, hence Brazil has many coffee plantations. 200 new employees are employed every day worldwide for this purpose. Successful large-scale capital investments by the European Union in member countries have seen massive food surpluses of wheat, sugar beet, butter and wine being produced.
NOTE: “Factors influencing location of NIEs” and “Challenges
TOPIC 3: THE INDUSTRIAL WORLD
faced by electronics industries of NIEs” will NOT be discussed.
1. Types of Industries Industry Examples Primary Directly involved with natural resources Fishing, forestry, farming, mining Labour intensive Processing and transforming raw materials obtained from Light Heavy Capital intensive Secondary primary industries or packaging of manufactured goods TV sets Oil refineries Garments, Toys Tertiary Selling and exchanging good and services (may be basic or premium) Banking, education, tourism, healthcare Quaternary Handling, processing information & knowledge, developing new products R&D, education, consultancy, bank « IT
Pay Capital Workers People Produce
Capital In. Labour In. More Less Mac, Tech People Less More Low
High
2. Factors affecting Industrial Location
Naturally occuring or partially processed physical substances used as inputs for production or manufacturing Weight-losing industries closer to their bulkier raw materials (in comparison to the finished products) Perishable raw materials (tins) more likely to be located near food processing industries for freshness
Thailand, Kanchanaburi Province, Tin and tungsten industries Near ore extraction points
Energy
Congestion of activities (away from city) Size of land
Power needed to run machines, including computers, lighting and air-conditioning Steady rate of flow of energy Distance from energy source Properness of infrastructure Nature of energy source (wind, water)
Switzerland, Swiss Alps Melting glaciers, Hydroelectricity, Aluminium smelting and electrochemical plants
Capital
Financial resources needed to set up and run a business or industry Cost of buildings and machinery Availability of loans from banks and financial institutions
Singapore, AMK & Ubi Pre-built flatted factories Provide companies space, saving money and time
Human Labour
Space in which people carry out their activities Levelness of land Price of land (away from city)
Examples Singapore, Jurong industrial estate Level land, Manufacturing industries China, Chengdu airframe plant 11 km from city
Group of workers employed to run operations, normally paid wages Readily available, low-cost labour, usually found in LDCs where the demand for pay is relatively lower Distance away from source of labour for collaboration Higher productivity levels of the company
Market
Physical Raw M.
Land
Terms and Conditions
Group of individuals or businesses who have a demand for certain services or products Weight-gaining industries closer to their markets to save costs and time from transportation Perishable products (fish, sugar, meat) and fragile products (porcelain) more likely to be located near markets for freshness and ensuring good condition respectively
South Korea, Sewon company Relocated manufacturing activities to China S$7000 yearly worker wages saved Japan, Toyota Motor Corporation Factories all around the world to cater to local markets Raw materials obtained from other factories in the world like wheels from Canadian Autoparts TIF
Governments Human *Transport *Technology
Terms and Conditions Group of people who looks into the way a country is run Decides on types of industries suitable for economy as well as location and extent of growth (e.g. to prevent pollution) Financial incentives like tax exemptions or bank loans with low interest rates Movement of goods and people from one place to another through the use of vehicles If efficient it will decrease the hassle of weightlosing/gaining industries in deciding how far to locate from raw materials and markets Goods exported & delivered to countries worldwide Enables workers to get to work fast Knowledge, skills and tools people use to meet their needs Energy electricity can be transferred by electricity over long distances with electromagnetic induction technology Cheaper and faster transport and communications
Examples Singapore Secondary - Jurong Island for petrochemical industries Quaternary Biopolis biomedical research hub - Worldwide research organisations Incentive packages 1970/80s - Japanese electronics companies attracted to invest - Further industrialisation Kenya and Europe 36 hours to transport flowers from the fields of Kenya to the markets of Europe Chicago, USA Well-connected transport systems with network of buses, trains and taxis with two major airports USA and India Companies in the USA employ workers in India to provide business functions and handle company phone calls without the need for branches in India
3. Trends of Transference Definition Global shift in locations of large-scale manufacturing activities and the resulting change in types of industries from the 1960s to 1990s
1960s 1970-80s 1980-90s
Mid 1990s
Description of trend High labour costs in DCs and incentives in LDCs Manufacturing industries move out of DCs and LDCs Capital replaced labour intensive industries in some LDCs due to growth trade, investment and technology LDCs became wealthier and more educated More technological industries Required more specialised knowledge and skills and more expensive equipment More companies outsourcing, contracted out parts of production process to other companies Companies could now operate in more than one country
4. Characteristics of NIEs Shift terms
Evidences of NIEs doing so
Manufacturing share of GDP
NIEs developing rapidly with manufacturing industries take a significant share of at least 20% GDP
Share of total employment in manufacturing
Percentage share of employment in manufacturing industry of NIE Brazil’s total employment
Rising share of manufactures in visible exports
Share of world’s merchandise exports of first-tier NIEs
Fast growth in real per capita income
Annual per capita income of South Korea increased
Evaluation 1. High proportion of GDP from manufacturing industries - New NIEs like China 2. Still relatively low levels of GDP contribution from manufacturing Economic development of the industries still has room for improvement 3. GDP contribution from manufacturing is falling - Mature NIEs - Less labour-intensive industries - Service sector expanding NIEs have seen their manufacturing sectors expand rapidly over the last few decades. This growth in manufacturing also means that the level Percentage increase: of employment in industries and its share of total 14.1% to 23.9% employment in NIEs has risen accordingly. This shows that NIEs have huge growth in Time lapse: manufacturing industries - Major exporters of 1970 to 2003 Percentage increase: manufactured products - Caters the output of for both local market and international market 2% to 4% Time lapse: With the success in their industrialisation process 1963 to 2007 Wealth generated by each person in NIEs Percentage increase: increases - NIEs generate more economic wealth US$100 to US$24 500 Able to narrow gap between themselves and DCs Time lapse: 1950 to 1980
5. Reasons for Trends of Transference Reasons Market Competitive advantages Advantages (e.g. market, labour government and literacy rates) one location has over another for the production of a good or provision of a service
Labour
Technologies reducing time and cost of moving raw materials, goods and people over long distances
Larger populations with low standard and cost of living in LDCs Lower labour costs as people will not demand higher wages Companies can keep their prices competitive and maximise profits Growth of agri-business and agro technology increases efficiency of the primary sector with more mechanization and less labour intensive
Government
Education Space shrinking technologies
Description Expansion of towns and facilities draws rural migrants to urban centres seeking for better standard of living, allowing them to be exposed to the variety and availability of goods and services
Transport
Containerisation
Communications Transmission of information from one individual or group to another
Outsourcing Production of components or goods away from a company’s main operation, often overseas to another company
Government policy and incentives like tax exemption and large loan redemption encourage growth of the industrial sector, leading to job opportunities More education facilities resulting in higher adult literacy rates cause a greater development of skills relevant to urban activities Advancements in technology of transport like commercial jet aircrafts and cargo ships helped decrease time travel between countries for conventions and goods to be transported quickly from one place to another Use of standard-sized containers to hold goods - Loading and unloading of goods is now faster and more efficient compared to the previous slow and laborious manual process, shortening time that ships have to dock at a port Internet technology such as e-mail and video-conferencing have allowed faster communication between countries. Headquarters of industries are better able to monitor and coordinate with their branches found in LDCs. Large firms place orders with smaller companies to produce particular goods or components at a set price and quality Outsourcing in areas of low labour costs - Lower costs of assemblage of raw materials, lower taxes and greater speed than the main manufacturing plants - Parent company may become an assembly point for outsourced companies.
Examples Economies of China and India has been growing rapidly - Middle class markets predicted to rise from the current 50 million people to 250 million in 2015 The large pool of available workers in Sri Lanka may expect to be paid US$0.48 per hour while US factory workers with the same skills may expect to be paid US$19.76 per hour, hence cheaper for labourintensive industries. 80 Indian agricultural businesses invested in Ethiopia with the support of the government, supplying them with the capital and technology to raise crops then sold to India - More lucrative Malaysian federal policy enforces Promotion of Investments Act Projects involving heavy investments, use of high technology - May be completely exempted from income tax - Foreign firms may be allowed to borrow up to RM 10 million from financial institutions
With the current development of the jet engine, travel from London to Bangkok could be completed in ten hours with a capacity of 400 passengers Industries in Japan did not have to be located near or at sources of raw materials - Iron and steel plants were able to remain at their locations despite the depletion of iron and coal resources there Due to huge markets and containerisation for imports Optical fibre systems made up of glass can transmit digitised voices, videos or computer signals at extremely high speeds has largely increased the speed of communication. Outsourcing of machine parts for USA’s aerospace industry involves manufacturing in Mexico, where labour costs are lower. Delivery time of finished products is now faster. Increasing number of European, Canadian and Australian companies are outsourcing parts of their production like textile manufacturing to Chinese manufacturers
6. Strategies for sustainable growth Strategy Managing depleting resources
Success The United Nations has implemented policies and guidelines to regulate land use and manage land resources, as well as promote sustainable human settlement development.
Recycling
Appropriate technology
Social responsibility and education
Recycling can be effective as efforts by many government authorities and organisations have now placed greater emphasis on reducing wastage of materials used such as e-waste. Many recycling plants can convert waste into useful materials like waste paper, cans, plastic. Use of appropriate technology is effective as the technological advancements have helped to minimise potentially damaging human activities on the environment. Tax holidays and infrastructure provisions from TNCs can also encourage further investment, expansion of electronics industry and proper use of suitable technology Various TNCs play a role in ensuring efficient production and minimal emission of pollutants. Companies can engage in R&D for efficient production methods and to develop better and more effective means of production. Training and employment of local workers at all levels of production, as well as education in schools, will also play a part in extending this form of education.
Example The UN works with India to reduce deterioration of urban areas and the disappearance of natural vegetation and environments caused by population growth of two per cent each year and the steady migration of people into cities.
In Bangalore, India, Ash Recyclers adopt methods to reduce, reuse and recycle ewaste, ensuring that industrial development there is environmentally compatible. In Jharia coalfield of India, contemporary techniques such as the use of remote sensing has helped to locate coal deposits more accurately so as to reduce the scale of mining and the degree of environmental damage. Kualiti Alam, a private toxic waste disposal facility in Penang, Malaysia, collects toxic waste from the state’s major companies.
Penang’s Skills Development Corporation of Malaysia oversees training courses for thousands of employees in the high-tech industry, enabling many to move into better paid positions.
Limitations NIEs are constantly competing fiercely with other countries that are rapidly industrialising as well Some NIEs like India face a shortage of component parts from local sources Easy to neglect such measures due to tough competition. Difficult to manage with rapid industrialisation and urbanisation as the rate of wastage is very high. Illegal dumping is generally the easy way out for waste disposal. Sometimes much cheaper to dump wastes rather than sort and recycle waste materials. E-waste, if not discarded properly, may be environmentally hazardous. Expensive and governments may not spend money on such technology as the money could be spent on other industrial activities. In India, mining of minerals like coal, iron ore and copper has still generated excessive amounts of waste and caused environmental degradation instead.
However, the high costs of such R&D may deter some companies from social responsibility of finding more effective means of production. Governments may be unwilling to provide incentives like tax subsidies to encourage such forms of research and development The money may be better spent to tackle problems of infrastructure such as a unsteady energy supply and heavy daily traffic congestions
NOTE: “Importance of tourism to a country’s industry”, “Specific
TOPIC 4: TOURISM 1. Terminologies
impacts of growth of tourism” and “Role of tour operators and tourists” will NOT be discussed.
Disposable income Amount of money left for an individual to spend or be put aside as savings after taxes of which usage is influenced by economic conditions of a country Leisure time Time available outside the demands of work or duty Changing lifestyle Evolution of the way a person or a group chooses to live including patterns of social relations, consumption, work, entertainment and dressing
As the economic conditions improve in many countries around the world, people generally earn higher incomes and have more disposable income. With an increase in disposable income, there is more money available to spend on a luxury of leisure activities. Thus, the means to travel may increase as well.
Leisure time Demand Changing lifestyle
Description With greater industrialisation, quality of life of people improves in both DCs and LDCs - More time is available for the average worker for leisure activities - People with more leisure time can take longer breaks and may be more inclined to travel. People become better educated and well-informed - Fast-paced lifestyle - Stress gives reasons to travel to relax - Avenue for self-discovery - See places they learn about from books and mass media - More interested in interacting with people from other cultures - Different types of tourism result
Disposable income
2. Reasons for growth of tourism
Affordability
Supply Amenities Accessibility Facili- Attracties tions
Presence of attractions within a country generally encourages international and domestic tourism - Attracts visitors from other countries and allows locals to gain varied experiences conveniently Facilities in a country like play a part in attracting tourists - Tourists more likely to travel to a place where there is a wide variety of facilities like hotels, restaurants and shops to choose from Well-developed transport network - Comprises roads, tracks, railways, shipping lanes and other marked pathways - Facilitate movement from one place to another - Ensures arrival at a destination in the shortest time possible International transport In recent years, air travel has become cheaper, especially with the entry of lowcost carriers offering low ticket prices as these carriers do not automatically provide passenger services that are offered on flights of conventional ones.
Examples Government ministries in Singapore have adopted the five- day work week People may take opportunity to go on weekend trips to neighbouring countries. Average of four weeks of paid vacation for most employees in DCs like Australia, New Zealand and countries in the European Union. Volunteer tourism where tourists spend their vacation doing volunteer work like building houses for the poor is growing as charity organisations like Habitat for Humanity help to organise such trips.
China has a variety of attractions, such as the Great Wall in Beijing, the ancient city of Dali in Yunnan and Mount Everest in Tibet Whole range of accommodation made available to suit tourists on different budgets from backpackers’ inns to high-end luxury hotels in Singapore Singapore - Transportation hub - Good transport network comprising land, sea and air routes - Mass Rapid Transit lines run all across the island - Large fleets of buses, make it easy to travel around the country. A round trip between Perth and Singapore costs as little as S$400, compared to more than S$600 previously with low-cost carriers like Air Asia, Tiger Airways.
Subsidiary
Supply Services Quality
Reduction of political barriers
Meeting and conventions
Others Travel booking
Media prevalence Availability Attractive of info advertising
Description Marketing, reservation and coordination among the different tour agencies operating within a country Tourism board set up to promote tourism and help coordinate efforts Quality service would leave a favourable impression on tourists. Pleasant experiences might prompt tourists to make repeat visits or even recommend the country to their friends. Governments of countries also encourage service providers in the tourism industry to provide quality service to attract tourists. Important as more countries are competing for a share of the tourism market A country or place may promote itself as a favoured tourist destination by advertising through the various media. Advertisements may be on television, radio, top of taxi cabs or on sides of buses to reach a wider audience. Some places may market themselves using their association with popular movies or television shows, as fans of these movies or shows may be interested in visiting the filming locations.
Through the media, readers and viewers may get information on places and their attractions. Advancements in IT has helped make information more readily available and accessible, keeping them available and up-to-date. Travel booking is now made easier with technology. Travel arrangements can be easily made via phone bookings or by fax. Transport and accommodation can usually be arranged through the use of IT as well, for example, through Internet bookings. With increased globalisation, business travel in the form of attending meetings and conventions has also been making an impact on the growth of global tourism by Meetings, Incentives, Conventions and Exhibitions (MICE) travel. Often, these events are held at different venues in different countries. Business travellers may make use of the opportunity to take a holiday. Erosion of political barriers Boosted tourist travel into and out of countries which previously had strict travel restrictions Citizens of these countries are also discovering tourism themselves and heading abroad for holidays
Examples Singapore Visitors Centre - Conveniently at major tourist area Orchard Road Provides information like travel routes, transport modes and attractions available to help tourists with queries. Hotel and retail management worldwide are sending staff for training or hiring consultants to help train employees. Singapore Tourism Board rolled out the Go-the-Extra-Mile-for-Service (GEMS) movement in 2003, which is a national effort aimed at improving service levels among service providers in the country. A bus stop can be been turned into an eye-catching advertisement for the Singapore Zoological Gardens. Korea’s tourism industry exploited the success of such shows by promoting filming locations to tourists as tourist destinations - Mini-series ‘Jewel in the Palace’ was filmed in different parts of Korea - Turned filming location of Yangjoo in Gyunggi into a theme park to draw fans of the series Useful information like local weather and local cuisine may be found on the Internet and in travel guides - Places of interest and popular shopping or eating spots recommended - Planning holidays are easier
International Monetary Fund meeting and World Bank convention are held annually at various venues - Singapore in 2006 - Delegates from all over the world discuss issues related to world finance - Before and during the period of the convention, many hotels will be fully booked - F&B and retail sector, usually experience better sales. Collapse of the ‘Iron Curtain’ - Increased tourism in countries in Eastern Europe - Tourists from other parts of the world can now explore Eastern Europe more freely European Union - Single market between member states with a common trade policy and currency - EU citizens are allowed to freely invest, live, travel, and work in other member states - Encouraged domestic travel for EU citizens.
Social
Negative Economic problems arise when money borrowed to develop tourism may cause debts as some profits may be ploughed back into the foreign companies. Social problems arise when there are behaviorial and drug smuggling activities, leading to a loss of local traditions and culture. Production of commercial souvenirs may destroy traditional craft industries.
Social benefits are such that locals can use new facilities if they can afford them like golf courses, theme parks. There is also social contact between the locals and foreigners, giving rise to cultural exchange.
However, environmental degradation may result as habitats of flora and fauna are destroyed as vegetation is cleared to make way for development projects like building roads, hotels, shopping centres. Pollution occurs when rapid development and tourists leave rubbish behind as their waste disposal systems are not well developed yet.
Socio-economic
Positive Tourism being a tertiary industry provides economic benefits in the form of the creation of jobs and the boosting of the local economy through earnings from foreign exchange. Since tourism is a service industry, it is labour-intensive, hence many jobs are created in the hotels, food outlets, retail trade and transport services. When tourists purchase local goods, they spend money and there is a flow of foreign exchange into the developing country, which can be used to pay for the construction of amenities such as roads and infrastructure.
Environmental
Economic
3. Possible approach to assess the impacts of tourism in LDCs, asked as LORMs
In conclusion, tourism brings more benefits than problems because it is a viable solution to boost economic growth by bringing in much-needed foreign exchange and creating jobs for the many unemployed. However, the developing country must take care in conserving their natural habitats or they might disappear with rapid development. Only when they have reached a developed stage, then will they have the resources to attend to the environmental problems.
Effective
Examples
Planning authorities
Local governments or national government agencies - Control rate and scale of development in tourist areas - Authorities may restrict tourism development and visitor numbers - High-value, low-volume tourism maximises economic benefits and minimise environmental damage.
North Sulawesi, Indonesia - Bunaken National Marine Park - Scuba diving spot - Banned use of cyanide and dynamite for fishing - Tourists required to pay an entrance fee - 30 per cent is channelled to local community - Ensure continued tourist arrivals in the long term
Non-governmental organisations
4. Measures to tackle side effects of growth
Usually run by independent private non-profit groups - Regularly conduct research and evaluate whether an area will be subjected to potential harm by tourists - If area is under threat of development by government corporations, NGOs may conduct campaigns, petitions or protests to exert pressure on them
WWF is concerned with conserving the natural environments and ensuring the sustainable use of renewable natural resources. The Nature Society in Singapore has worked successfully to protect mangrove and bird populations in Sunge Buloh.
Ineffective Examples Some countries face difficulties Malaysia Gunung Mulu National Park enforcing laws and regulations on - Penang became form of attraction proper tourist behaviour Nomadic Penang people displaced Planning authorities in LDCs lack Lost rights to live and use natural sufficient funds to employ park resources - Resettled into longhouses rangers to patrol protected in designated locations - Changed reserves, or to train more park their traditional customs and personnel lifestyles However, governments and society may not treat NGOs with the appropriate degree of importance. Suggestions may not be taken up and the policies may not be implemented. Hence NGOs’ efforts come to nothing and are ineffective. There may also be a lack of funds and expertise to carry out research. Public support may be inadequate as there is a lack of awareness of NGOs amongst the public.
Responsible travel to natural areas conserves the environment and improves well-being of local people Support by local population in carrying out tourism in the country instead of affecting them negatively
Community based tourism
Ecotourism
5. Sustainable tourism
Successes Much effort is put in to minimise volume of waste generated and using recycled materials. Ecotourism activities normally are conducted in small groups. Revolve around places under careful management of authorities. These contribute to the economy and development of local community. Tour operators and government authorities may consult the local community on tourism projects. Work towards agreeing on guidelines to manage the impacts of tourism on communities Local people can be trained to take control over tourist activities like jungle excursions and home stays. Enables the local community to promote their authentic culture and heritage.
Examples Phang Nga Bay in Thailand is popular for sea canoe rowing to explore of limestone caves. Each canoe is led by a local guide educating tourists about the place, providing employment to the people. As the canoes are not motorised, there is no water or noise pollution, maximising conservation. National Tourism Authority of Lao and Phou Khoa Khouay nature reserves management conduct meetings with local communities regularly To make decisions and evaluate views on various tourist projects. Villagers in Northwest Province, Cameroon, earn income as guides for visiting tourists through NGO Heritage Tours Cameroon More jobs and money to improve facilities and living conditions of the people
Limitations
Some profess trips to be ecotourism in nature carelessly Lack of regulations to protect ecotourism places may result in disturbances of peace to ecosystem
Many tour guides in ecotourism are reluctant to impose rules of correct behaviour if they see it as a way to gain more income. Many previously untouched natural environments have been opened up as alternatives. Mass of human activities threaten sustainability of these environments.
If certain parties fail to share in the ideals of community-based tourism, the environment and livelihood of others may be jeopardised. Communities may still lack the knowledge to manage the development of tourism in a sustainable manner even though they participate in sustainable tourism
Examples In Gabon, west central Africa, frequent hunting and poaching of elephants and gorillas occur due to its variety of wildlife and low levels of law regulation. Many escape not liable to the damage inflicted on the natural environment. Sustainability of Kampong Kuantan mangroves of Malaysia threatened when tour guides replaced small boats with motor boats and some allowed tourists to catch fireflies in the region. Forests in Zanzibar, Tanzania, allow visitors to get close to the surroundings while causing minimal impact, but increase in visitors expose sensitive environments to human activity.
Tourists likely to have used up most of expenditure on air travel or on foreign tour operators. Less revenue for local communities to earn from tourists as compared to mass tourism. Small portion of a expenditure goes to the local community. Revenue insufficient to fund certain community-based tourism projects.
In Phuket, Thailand, locals are reported to have hunted down gibbons in their natural habitat to train them as performers for tourists. Many tourists think that these endangered animals are bred for the tourism industry, and the locals do not feel the need to dispel this view.
Visitors who embark on communitybased tourism without a good understanding of what it involves may also have unrealistic expectations of their trips. They may become dissatisfied with the conditions of the rural settings and make unreasonable demands to the people there, resulting in conflict with the local communities.
NOTE: “Importance of tourism to a country’s industry”, “Specific impacts of growth of tourism” and “Role of
Importance of tourism to a country’s industry
tour operators and tourists” will NOT be discussed. However, here are the remains of the section of notes I gave up on. Just if you want to make your own notes on them. At least most of it came out last year.
Impacts of growth of tourism Positive economic impacts
Examples
[1] Revenue source for the treasury from Contribution tourist spending in the form of taxes to revenue on goods and services levied at point of spending
[1] Multiplier effect of infrastructure built to serve the tourists like roads [2] Locals greater transport facilities Infrastructure [3] More places of interests to go for development recreation [4] Speed up movement of goods and services within the country [1] Increase in foreign investors when they like the country they have visited Foreign [2] Multiplier effect of tourist spending as investment more jobs and business transactions are created Job creation
Singapore F1 Grand Prix
Negative economic impacts [1] Profits earned from tourists might go to foreign owners of tour companies and hotels instead of local workers [2] Leakage and outflow of money and development opportunities from the destination country to other countries
Examples
Loss of income and development
[1] Tourism requires large capital input to develop the industry [2] Such as building hotels and transport networks
High infrastructure costs
[1] Influx of tourists leads to competition for local demand for basic goods and services [2] An increase in prices of goods and services to tourists and the locals
Increase in prices
Thailand
Unequal development of industries
Exchange of values
Preservation of heritage and customs Improvement of standard of living
Positive social and cultural impacts [1] Presence of tourists provides opportunity for interaction between tourists and local people [2] Promotes better understanding of cultures and social practices [1] Locals become more aware of their heritage as tourists show interest in their local culture and history [2] Encourage the preservation of cultural, historical traditions and buildings and sites [1] Employment in the tourist industry [2] Locals can afford luxury goods [3] Standard of living of people improves
Examples
Negative social and cultural impacts [1] Development of pseudo culture [2] To meet demands for tourist souvenirs, traditional craft will die naturally [3] People in the country will turn to machines to fashion and produce souvenirs [1] Shop keepers raise the prices of goods as tourist have more spending power [2] Locals end up having to pay on par with tourists [3] May lead to resentment of locals against the richer visitors
Examples
Pseudo culture
Increase in prices and economic inequality
Increase in crime rates Loss of local identity and culture
Positive environmental impacts
Examples
Negative environmental impacts
Examples
Conservation of natural areas
Environmental degradation
Measures to tackle side effects of growth Effective Tour operators act as intermediaries between tourists and service providers in tourist areas - Can help local communities make preparations for visitor arrivals, provide Tour feedback on their service standards, and to improve the operators sustainability of their activities - Encourages tour operators to brief tourists on responsible behaviour - Maintains healthy interactions between tourists and local communities Tourists -
Examples International Tourism Partnership - Practical guidelines for hotels - Conserve energy and water - Educate guests and staff on environmental management - Means for guests for involvement in local community development projects - Tourists can purchase local products and employ local people where possible -
Ineffective Tour operators work with hotels and transport services to provide employment and generate revenue by acting as frequent points of contact between tourist and destination. Long-term success of tourism rely on the concept that economic gains should not be the only motivation for businesses. -
