Design ethnography - Leslie MacNeil Weber

LESLIE MACNEIL WEBER

2009 DESIGN ETHNOGRAPHY: STRATEGY FOR VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

DESIGN ETHNOGRAPHY: STRATEGY FOR VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Leslie MacNeil Weber 2009 Graduate Thesis Visual Communication Design Division of Design University of Washington

Many thanks to the University of Washington design faculty who have helped immensely in the creation of this thesis, especially Kristine Matthews, Dominic Muren, and Axel Roesler. I would also like to thank my fellow MFA colleagues, with whom I have formed great friendships over the last two years. Special thanks to Preetham Kolari, who guided me through the process of creating experience collages, and who helped to bring a researcher’s perspective to this thesis. I am also grateful to all of the designers, anthropologists, and researchers who participated in the collages and interviews required by this thesis. Special thanks to Linda Norlen, who helped tremendously with the development of my writing. A gracious thank you to my husband, Jason, who has provided incredible support during my graduate school experience. And to my mom and dad, for continually providing me with encouragement and guidance. Finally, an enthusiastic thank you to Karen Cheng, my thesis chair, who spent countless hours reading (and re-reading) this document, providing valuable feedback week after week. It was an honor to be able to work with you.

Thesis Committee Karen Cheng Department Chair Thesis Chair Kristine Matthews Assistant Professor, VCD Dominic Muren Lecturer, Design Studies Advisors Preetham Kolari Senior Experience Researcher Linda Norlen Design Educator, Writer Axel Roesler Assistant Professor, IxD

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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

1 THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

2 INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

1.1

Overview of Ethnography

1.2

Overview of Design Research Taxonomies

1.3

Techniques for Design Research

1.4

Ethnography as Design Research

1.5

Ethnography as a Basis for Design Strategy

1.6

Case Studies

1.7

Conclusion

2.1

Overview of Ethnographic Techniques

2.2

The Ethnographic Design Process

2.3

Experience Collages

2.4

Collaboration Model

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(AIGA/Cheskin; 2006)

INTRODUCTION “People and culture are incredibly complex. Ethnography offers a way to make sense of this complexity. It lets us see beyond our preconceptions and immerse ourselves in the world of others. Most importantly, it allows us to see patterns of behavior in a real world context—patterns that we can understand both rationally and intuitively.”1 Ethnography, a field of anthropological study and a research technique, helps visual communication designers create materials that evoke meaning and inspire action in their audiences. Ethnography enables a designer’s understanding by uncovering cultural contexts and social norms. This thesis examines the intersection between the fields of ethnography and visual communication design. First, the thesis describes the value of ethnography in developing effective strategies for visual communication design. Second, the thesis describes how designers can most effectively collaborate with ethnographers in all phases of the design process. 1

AIGA and Cheskin. An Ethnographic Primer, 2006. INTRODUCTION

PEOPLE AND CULTURE ARE INCREDIBLY COMPLEX. ETHNOGRAPHY OFFERS A WAY TO MAKE SENSE OF THIS COMPLEXITY.

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pg. 11 THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

In design research, ethnography is a tool for uncovering cultural insights. Insights inform design strategy.

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SECTION 1: THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

Ethnography: the study of culture conducted in natural settings. Data is gathered from a range of sources, but mainly from observation and/or relatively informal conversations.

Bronislaw Malinowski: known for his work with ethnographic research, Malinowski is considered one of the most important anthropologists of the twentieth century. Malinowski taught anthropology at the London School of Economics, and is the author of Argonauts of the Western Pacific. He is pictured here conducting field work in the Trobriand Islands.

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Malinowski’s goal: “to grasp the native’s point of view, his relation to life, to realize his vision of his world.”

1.1 OVERVIEW OF ETHNOGRAPHY

1/ People’s behavior is studied in everyday contexts. 2/ Data is gathered from a range of sources, but observation and/or relatively informal conversations are most commonly used. 3/ Data collection is flexible and unstructured to avoid pre-fixed arrangements that may impose restrictions on what people say and do. 4/ Research usually focuses on a single person or small group. 5/ Observations are recorded and analyzed to determine the underlying causes of human actions/behaviors. Statistical analysis plays (at most) a subordinate role. Bronislaw Malinowski, a key figure in the field of anthropology, was the first social scientist to conduct research now considered by anthropologists to be ethnography. In the early 1900s, Malinowski carried out extensive field research

Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, 1973. / 3Hammersley, Martyn. Reading Ethnographic Research: A Critical Guide. London: Longman, 1990. / 4Stocking, George W. The Ethnographer’s Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992. / 5Laurel, Brenda, ed. Design Research: Methods and Perspectives. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2003.

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THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

Martyn Hammersley, one of the leading ethnographers and authors in modern anthropology, characterizes ethnography as a form of social research that has most of the following features: 3

about natives, the Kula, in Papua New Guinea by living in the Trobriand Islands for extended periods of time, observing behaviors and actions within their natural environment. Malinowski originally went to New Guinea to study a series of prophetic cults, however, he never made it to his original destination of Mambare. He stopped in the Trobriand Islands on his way to Mambare, and ended up staying.4 The goal of his work was “to grasp the native’s point of view, his relation to life, to realize his vision of his world.”5 Believing that the behaviors of a society contain deeper meanings than what is evident to the casual observer, Malinowski aimed to understand what the Kula were themselves not aware of about themselves. In his book entitled Argonauts of the Western Pacific, Malinowski published the first known methods for ethnographic research, what he termed ‘participant observation.’ He documented his methods for conducting observational research as well as his process for collecting information from casual conversations (as opposed to the then-popular method of carefully conducted interviews).5

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Ethnography, a specialized field with roots in anthropology and sociology, provides tools for learning about specific cultures. Anthropologists study meaning that is manifested as shared systems of understanding and patterns of behavior within a society; providing organization and guiding action in people’s daily lives.2 Anthropologists use ethnography to understand the social and cultural structures of people across societies.

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Discovery: Stage in the process where the designer identifies opportunities for design.

Ideation: Phase in the design process when the designer begins to formulate possibilities for the initial design.

Design: The phase in the design process when the actual physical design is created.

Refinement: Stage in the process in which a design is modified and refined.

Production: Stage in the process when the final design is actually produced for distribution.

Understanding: Phase in the process when the designer reflects upon the design and identifies positive and negative points.

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RESEARCH AND THE DESIGN PROCESS Ethnography offers research techniques that help designers understand audiences. Many graphic designers are more familiar with traditional design research techniques such as focus groups or one-on-one interviews than with ethnography. Traditional techniques often require individuals to report and assess their own behavior. While useful, this form of audience research can suffer from distortions and oversights that occur in any self-analysis. To understand how research shapes design, it is important to first be aware of phases within the design process. A typical design process involves the following activities: discovery, ideation, design, refinement, production, and reflection. These phases can be more generally defined as activities: conceptualize, make, and reflect.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY Ethnography is a form of primary research. Primary research is data and information that is gathered directly from an original source (e.g., first-hand questioning, surveys, and focus groups). Secondary research is the collection of data and information from existing sources (e.g., documents, historical data, or published works). Primary research is valuable because it involves the collection of data that is not biased by anyone other than the original researcher. Secondary research is valuable because it accesses bodies of work from individuals who are already knowledgeable in the field of study, and may have a unique perspective to contribute to the field. Secondary research is often easier to access and less costly than primary research, however, secondary information that is specific to the area of interest may not exist.

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE Ethnography is considered to be a type of qualitative research. Qualitative research provides in-depth descriptions or reasoning for people’s attributes, experiences, and behaviors, whereas quantitative research usually results in numerical data that measures specific amounts or degrees of a person’s attributes and behaviors. Qualitative research is often conducted to generate new theories, but quantitative data is usually used to test theories that have been previously generated.6 Qualitative research is valuable because it provides an explanation for people’s actions and behaviors that allows researchers to understand personal accounts, but quantitative data helps researchers predict probabilities and general trends with some degree of numerical accuracy. Ladner, Sam. Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research. Design Research blog, 2007.

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Design research can be classified using different categorical schemes. Knowledge of the various research taxonomies is important for understanding ethnography and determining when it is an applicable research technique.


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1.2 OVERVIEW OF DESIGN RESEARCH TAXONOMIES

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Qualitative & Quantitative Research Qualitative research is concerned with providing a subjective understanding about human behaviors; quantitative research is concerned with statistical data.

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Primary & Secondary Research Primary research is collected first-hand by the researcher; secondary research is collected from existing sources such as documents, historical data, or published works.

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Evaluative Research: correlates with ‘reflect’ processes in the research diagram.

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Generative research is conducted after the design direction has been determined, during ideation, design development, and in the beginning of the refinement stages. Deeper into the design process than exploratory research, generative research helps narrow the project scope by determining specific details about the design (e.g., deciding between a push button or a switch), or how a message will be communicated (e.g., deciding what combination of images and words would be most effective or appropriate). Generative research uncovers

ideas and highlights specific user interests to further the development of initial concepts, and to identify methodologies for the rest of the design process.8 In industrial design, generative research often manifests itself in an initial prototype that will be modified several times in the future. Evaluative research occurs during refinement, production, and understanding in the design phases. In the late stages of a design process, the designer seeks to find the best resolution for specific concepts or prototypes, asking, “How can it be improved?” At this stage, research is valuable for modifications of a particular design. Evaluative research is also useful in providing feedback to determine if a design is working in context. Attempting to understand the design impact, evaluative research is valuable to prepare for future efforts. 7IDEO. IDEO Method Cards. Palo Alto, 2003. / 8Sanders, Liz and VanPatter, G.K. Science in the Making. NextDesign Leadership Institute, 2004.


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EXPLORATORY, GENERATIVE, AND EVALUATIVE Ethnography is useful in all stages of design: it can advance exploratory, generative or evaluative research. Exploratory research takes place in the discovery and ideation phases of design, helping to identify design opportunities and project goals. Exploratory research answers the question, “what is the design or communication intent?” It is used to investigate ideas or concepts when the direction for the project has not yet been defined. IDEO, a San Franciscobased design consultancy known for innovation and unique problem-solving methods, often uses exploratory methods with clients in the beginning of a design process. One example of exploratory research is affinity diagramming— arranging elements by their relationships to reveal connections and to expose opportunities for design.7

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Design Research Diagram: Ethnography can serve as an exploratory, a generative, or an evaluative research technique in design. These categories correlate to phases within the design process, listed in the blue ring surrounding the inside circle. Because the design process is not linear, the smaller dashed circles represent a designer’s potential to return to earlier stages in the process. Designers ask questions throughout the design process, as can be seen here in each phase of design.

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Participants commonly tailor their answers, responding the way they think the interviewer wants them to or portraying a more flattering self-image than reality might entail. 1.3 TECHNIQUES FOR DESIGN RESEARCH FOCUS GROUPS AND INTERVIEWS

Stemming from the idea of focus groups, a variety of additional interview styles have similar research goals. These vary in their number of participants—from one-on-one interviews to those in dyads (two), triads (three), and supergroups (fifty to a hundred). Smaller groups are more useful for getting stories behind people’s viewpoints, whereas larger groups are useful for gathering a large number of opinions that are topical or surface-level (in large groups, there are too

No matter the size of the interview group, participants may tailor their answers; either responding the way they think the interviewer wants them to or portraying a more flattering self-image than reality might entail. Selfanalysis may also be inaccurate when a person’s actions and behaviors are not conscious, or when a person has a false or inaccurate perception of themselves (for example, someone who believes himself to be a safe driver because he has never been in an accident might actually be a reckless driver). People are often not aware of meanings and beliefs that underlie their behaviors. Online discussion groups are facilitated in a manner similar to interviews, but use the Internet as a platform for discussion. The Internet provides separation between the moderator and participants, possibly allowing

participants to feel more comfortable when discussing personal or emotional experiences. However, it is even more difficult to measure the accuracy of responses in online discussions because the facilitator may be unable to directly assess gestures and expressions of the respondents. Surveys are another research method, similar to interviews, that utilize questions and answers to gather information. Unlike most interview techniques, surveys are useful for gathering quantitative data. Results can be measured from a large sample of participants. However, in our time-starved society, people often do not take time to participate in surveys. The number of respondents may be maximized if incentives are offered for completion, and questions are simple and easy to answer (e.g., true/false questions). Brief questioning tactics make surveys ineffective for gathering detailed personal accounts. Voluntary participation may also compromise interview-style research techniques. Researchers cannot assume that the participating group is representative of an audience as a whole. People who volunteer may trend towards certain demographics (retirees, part-time workers, etc.) Bainbridge, Mike and Millman, Debbie. “Design Meets Research.” www.aiga.org; 2008.

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Interview-style formats are known to most practicing designers. Focus groups are a common data collection method. They involve a small group of people (typically five to fifteen) and a short period of time (usually one to two hours). A moderator asks neutral, nonleading questions and engages participants in open-ended discussions. Focus groups work well for getting a quick read on people’s thoughts and feelings and can be used as a tool for understanding potential outcomes of a proposed design. However, individuals who are outspoken may dominate the discussion, possibly limiting the participation of others. Additionally, people may be unwilling or uncomfortable participating if the subject addresses embarrassing or sensitive topics.5

many individuals to foster deep discussions). In larger groups, interviews need to be short and focused to keep the attention of the audience; in small groups, interviews can take on more of a discussion format with everyone involved. In either case, the moderator may ask questions about behaviors, opinions, knowledge, and experiences as a way to get information about each participant’s feelings and desires. Larger groups may also include quantitative questioning to quickly generate statistics about participants.5, 9

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Ethnography is just one research method. Other techniques are interviews, surveys, co-creation exercises, and observations.

OBSERVE UNARTICULATED

CO-CREATION TECHNIQUES Co-creation techniques actively involve an audience in the hands-on development of design. Elizabeth Sanders, founder of prominent design research firms SonicRim and MakeTools, implemented innovative co-creation design methods in the early 1990s. Sanders is especially well known for her work with participatory design practices; creative activities that involve potential users in the process of design. Participants create models and reflect on what they have made, revealing their dreams, fears, aspirations, and ideas in the process.10 Other co-creation techniques include activities such as drawing exercises, diagramming, and cognitive mapping (the drawing of existing and virtual spaces).7 Experience collages are one example of a cocreation technique. Using words and images, researchers ask participants to assemble process diagrams for particular activities. Participants then use the collage as a tool for explaining the steps of their process. Collages allow participants to analyze their actions in depth, with a palette of words and images that help to enable reflection and discussion. Words and images that represent emotions are useful for exposing hidden problems (or painpoints) within a process.

OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES Ethnography is a form of observational research. Unlike interview and co-creation methods, observational techniques are not dependent on direct feedback from participants. Often occurring in a participant’s natural environment, observational techniques provide a more accurate portrayal of a person’s day-to-day activities than an interview conducted in an unfamiliar setting. There are several different techniques for observational methods, including behavioral mapping and tracking signs. Behavioral mapping is an observational research technique that tracks people’s movements in an effort to determine traffic patterns and spatial behaviors over time. A video camera may be used to record information that can be assessed by researchers to gain an understanding for people’s patterns in movement. Behavioral mapping is useful for large-scale urban planning efforts, but also helpful for retailers who are planning store and display layouts. Sign tracking, observing evidence left by people, is another way to understand generalities in people’s activities without having to rely on personal contact.7 One example, documented by French philosopher Gaston Bachelard in

+ Information taken from actions and direct responses

+ Does not rely on self-reporting

Directly attain information

Participants often make new discoveries

Participants in natural environment

Understand stories behind actions

Participants discover new insights through creativity

Patterns discovered in people’s behavior

Inaccuracies in self-reporting

Time intensive to prepare

Can be costly to conduct

Difficult to assess truthfulness

Time spent in participant ‘immersion’ period

Often time intensive

People may feel uncomfortable sharing personal info

Relies heavily on analysis

Relies heavily on analysis

The Poetics of Space, is called “desire paths.” Desire paths are unplanned paths that are usually created by people in an effort to walk the shortest route between two well-traveled destinations. Observational techniques also help researchers understand people’s choices and preferences (e.g., observing how quickly a product disappears from a store shelf). Similarly, observing a person’s possessions (e.g., the contents of a woman’s purse or a car trunk) provides knowledge about what people keep handy or carry with them. One disadvantage of observational research is the lack of a direct explanation for a person’s actions. However, if actual behaviors are indeed unconscious, the advantages of observational research may outweigh this disadvantage. A second disadvantage of observational research is the time and expense often required to conduct observational field studies; these factors can represent significant obstacles, especially in fastpaced industries such as design and advertising. 10Sleeswijk Visser, Stappers, van der Lugt and Sanders. Contextmapping: Experiences from Practice. The Netherlands: Delft University of Technology, 2005. / 11Kolari, Preetham. Personal Interview, February 2009.

ASK / CO-CREATE / OBSERVE The design research methods discussed thus far can be placed on a continuum from articulated to unarticulated.11 Articulated techniques use direct feedback for analysis, whereas unarticulated techniques use observation and inference to determine what motivates each participant. From left to right on the continuum, research methods include: ask, co-create, and observe. Interview methods fall under the ‘ask’ category of techniques, meaning that researchers directly ask participants for their responses, and largely interpret the responses at face value. Co-creation techniques, in the middle of the continuum, rely partially on direct responses from the studied person(s), but also extract information from an analysis of the activities. In contrast to both ask and co-creation research techniques, observation methods do not depend at all on articulated exchanges. Rather, all information is derived from analysis of the studied person in their natural setting or daily life.


+ Quick-read on people’s thoughts/emotions

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CO-CREATE

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1.4 ETHNOGRAPHY AS DESIGN RESEARCH

One of the first designers to incorporate ethnography into a design process was Henry Dreyfuss, in the 1950s. In Designing for People, Dreyfuss writes about the use of observation to attain empathy for the user.14 Dreyfuss wrote about the importance of a thorough knowledge and understanding about the individuals on the receiving end of his designs. He details his observational methods for designing telephones for the American Bell Telephone Company, when phones were provided as part of a service contract. Dreyfuss followed a service man into

“Ethnography appeals to designers because it provides a window onto the ways consumers interact with products in their everyday lives.”15 The initial study of ethnography and industrial design is generally attributed to research completed by Lucy Suchman at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in the 1980s. Xerox, known for the production of photocopiers, hired an anthropologist who videotaped office workers trying to make copies. After viewing the videos, Xerox engineers took into account user difficulties and modified the design. One of the results of this research was the famous green ‘copy’ button—a more intuitive device for signaling the beginning of a copy job than previous models offered. Today, ethnographic research is widely used and documented in industrial design and

interaction design. Many large consumerbased organizations like Microsoft, Motorola, and Intel have anthropologists on staff to assist in product and software development.16 Rhea, Darrel. The Rise in Popularity of Ethnography. Cheskin Added Value blog, 2003. / 13Li, LiAnne. Personal Interview, March 2009. / 14Dreyfuss, Henry. Designing for People, Third Ed. New York: Allworth Press, 2003. / 15Wasson, Christina. Ethnography in the field of design. Human Organization: 59(4), 2000. / 16Sanders, Elizabeth. Ethnography in NPD Research. How ‘Applied Ethnography’ can Improve your NPD Research Process. Visions Magazine; Aug. 2006. 12


As ethnography’s use in design grows, its definition has expanded beyond its conventional meaning. Traditionally, in its academic definition, ethnography is completed only through the researcher’s immersion in a culture or social group. However, more contemporary viewpoints allow the term ‘ethnography’ to encompass any type of hands-on research method that involves an element of culture.13

customers’ homes to watch people use their telephones and learn about these interactions. These observations informed his future design—a rotary phone with a heavy base and pedestal stand. The heavy base was important to customers who were used to using phones that were connected to the wall, and disliked devices that felt light or loose. Dreyfuss, unfamiliar with ethnographic work of his time, did not classify his research as ethnography. However, the observations he did for Bell were what researchers now consider ethnographic research.

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Recently the term ‘ethnography’ has become much better known as the practice has grown in use. As Darrel Rhea, Principal and CEO of market research firm Cheskin has observed, “Over the past few years ethnography and ethnographers have been popping up everywhere I turn. From human/computer interaction, to branding, to computer supported cooperative work, to product development, to tangible computing, to advertising.”12

IN INDUSTRIAL DESIGN The result of an industrial design project is a tangible artifact. In industrial design, ethnography can serve as an exploratory, generative, and/or evaluative research tool. As an exploratory technique, ethnography can help designers discover opportunities by identifying specific needs for artifacts (or products) in people’s lives. Observations of a person’s interactions with artifacts can lead to the identification of painpoints in the processes of users, or ways that people work around problems (consciously or unconsciously). With this knowledge, industrial designers are able to envision new tools and/or devices that address these unmet user needs. As a generative tool, ethnography can be used to determine how artifacts, tools and/or devices should be designed. By considering the context for the artifact, ethnography can expose details about how the user will interact with a device, allowing the designer to tailor the design by selecting shapes, colors, functions, etc. In industrial design, generative research often leads to the design of prototypes. As an evaluative tool, ethnography can be used to understand how individuals interact with products that have already been built. Designers can use this information to understand design successes and failures, as well as improve upon existing designs.

Ways of Thinking: Beliefs Biases Education Frame of Reference Ideas Influences Interpretations Knowledge

Meaning Opinions Organization (mental) Perspective Signified/Signifier Symbols Understanding Values

IN INTERACTION DESIGN Industrial design and interaction design are experience-based design fields. Both result in tangible products or interfaces that facilitate tasks for users. Ethnography has recently played in increasing role in interaction design, especially as the field of Human Computer Interaction has gained popularity since the 1990s.17 The goal of ethnography in interaction design is to understand how users perceive and use electronic experiences, and how designers can create software that is uncomplicated, rewarding to use, and compatible with a person’s existing practices. Like industrial design, ethnography can be used in interaction design as an exploratory, a generative, and an evaluative technique. As an exploratory tool, ethnography is a method for identifying the potential forms an interaction might take. As a generative tool, ethnography helps inform and refine design decisions by understanding how specific users interact with interfaces. Interaction design works with constantly advancing technologies, and ethnography can be used to understand how to incorporate these new technologies into existing systems in ways the user can readily embrace. As an evaluative tool, ethnography is helpful in assessing people’s use of the interaction to learn about future improvements.

INVITES PHYSICAL / TACTILE INTERACTIONS

INVITES COGNITIVE INTERACTIONS

INDUSTRIAL DESIGN

IN VISUAL COMMUNICATION DESIGN The benefits of ethnography are often more subtle in visual communication design than in industrial or interaction design. The tangible result (or artifact) of visual communication design is a communication material, with the goal of influencing a person’s actions and ultimately eliciting a behavior change. In visual communication design, ethnography can help designers by uncovering insights that inform communication strategies—a plan, method, or scheme to communicate in the most effective and compelling way for a given situation. Like industrial and interaction design, ethnography can serve as an exploratory, generative, or evaluative technique. As an exploratory tool, ethnography can help visual communication designers establish a message. While a project’s goal may be predetermined (e.g., reduce teen pregnancies), the message should be customized to produce the best results for the given audience (“don’t have sex” vs. “practice safe sex”). As a generative tool, ethnography provides contextual insights that determine the best way to frame and communicate the message (is the audience more likely to respond to the message in a humorous tone or a serious tone?) Knowledge about users and their context enhances a designer’s ability to develop and customize communication material. As an evaluative tool, ethnography in visual communication design helps assess the impact of the design effort and formulate improvements or new ideas for future projects.

INTERACTION DESIGN

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Movements Norms Nuances Organization (physical) Patterns Routines Traditions Trends

VISUAL COMMUNICATION

Although ethnography has been used in visual communication design to some extent, the successes and methodologies of ethnography in visual communication design have been documented to a far lesser degree than in industrial or interaction design. There are three factors that may contribute to the subordinate role of ethnography in visual communication design. First, information about specific design efforts is often proprietary information. While proprietary cases are present in all design disciplines, it seems to particularly be the case in market research and advertising industries where an idea or strategy is often the crucial component for success, and one that is easy for competitors to replicate with little cost or effort. Second, there are some circumstances in which the monetary cost of failure for industrial or interaction design efforts may be significantly higher than that of a visual communication effort. Modifying communication materials after they have been produced may cost less than modifying artifacts that are comprised of many custom pieces of equipment. (Note: large-scale advertising campaigns and promotional programs are certainly an exception). If the cost of failure is less, companies may be less willing to spend money on research efforts like ethnography. However, as companies place greater importance on this factor, this point may change. Third, the result of a design artifact may involve physical interactions (assessed through observing

‘ways of doing things’), or mental interactions (assessed by learning about a society’s ways of thinking). Many interaction design artifacts, and especially industrial design artifacts, are based around physical/tactile interactions that can be observed and translated into designs that constitute a purposeful tool or fulfill an unmet need. However, in visual communication design, the artifact is more difficult to assess because its effect is often the shift of a person’s thinking. Observing a person viewing communication materials produces limited results because the response is not usually immediate (e.g., a person viewing an advertisement for a product may not be motivated to purchase the product for several days or weeks; quite possibly they may not consider the product until the next time they are in a store looking at a specific promotional display). Furthermore, communication materials are often designed to support a larger system of brand experiences. In many cases, sales occur as a result of repeated exposure to the brand or advertisement, which is also difficult to assess through observational ethnography. Therefore, visual communication design generally only benefits from ethnography when it is analyzed at a broader contextual level— a level that involves overall strategy rather than direct design feedback. 17Faiola, Anthony. The Design Enterprise: Revising the HCI Education Paradigm. PowerPoint Presentation from SIGCHI Workshop; 2004.


Ways of Doing: Customs Communication Documentation Etiquette Expressions Gestures Interactions Lifestyles

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Ethnography strengthens design by revealing context, eliciting knowledge about the cultural undertones and functions of audiences. Ethnography uncovers a society’s ways of doing and thinking. Understanding the core behavior of an audience greatly enhances a designer’s ability to develop and customize design solutions.

Design Thinking: “a discipline that uses the designer’s sensibility and methods to match people’s needs with what is technologically feasible and what a viable business strategy can convert into customer value and market opportunity,” (Tim Brown, 2008).24

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Design: “a plan to make something.” Strategy: “a careful plan or method,” or “the art of employing or devising plans.” (Definitions from Webster’s Dictionary).

1.5 ETHNOGRAPHY AS A BASIS FOR DESIGN STRATEGY take into account what is happening in the world of the consumer (or user) and must consider work of competitors, as well as what is technologically current. Strategy must be based on solid data (an analytical framework, data from a reputable source, or even explicit assumptions). A thorough analysis of the data must take place before arriving at the strategy. Finally, strategy must consider all steps involved in implementing the design. McCullagh is quick to point out that less than ten percent of strategies are ever executed.22 In building strategy, it is helpful if a designer is experienced enough to have an understanding of the possibilities within a specific domain. Once devised, strategy is translated into design ideation. Strategy is inherently seen in a designer’s concepts, refinements, and even in the form and tactical location of the final design. Strategy guides the visual and verbal tone of communication material. It determines methods for communicating through a customized message, a specific voice, and the visual language and composition of the piece. 18O’Grady, Jennifer Visocky and O’Grady, Kenneth Visocky. A Designer’s Research Manual. Gloucester: Rockport Publishers, Inc., 2006. / 19Joziasse, Frans. Corporate Strategy: Bringing Design Management into the Fold. In Building Design Strategy, edited by Thomas Lockwood and Thomas Walton. New York: Allsworth Press; 2008. / 20Lockwood, Thomas and Walton, Thomas. Building Design Strategy. New York: Allsworth Press; 2008. / 21Jensen, Anna Krarup. Strategic Design: Achieving Utopian Goals. Copenhagen: Danish Centre for Design Research, 2009. / 22McCullagh, Kevin. Strategy for the Real World. In Building Design Strategy, edited by Thomas Lockwood and Thomas Walton. New York: Allsworth Press; 2008. / 23Koppel, Ted and Smith, Jack for ABC News. The Deep Dive. Princeton, NJ: Films Media Group, 2007. / 24Brown, Tim. Design Thinking. Harvard Business Review, 1 June 2008.

DESIGN THINKING AND STRATEGY Because designers spend their careers creating new artifacts, they are knowledgeable in the process of envisioning and implementing undiscovered possibilities. The designer’s ability to approach problems unconventionally, referred to as design thinking, translates well into developing design strategies that are novel and unexpected.

Design thinking is integral to the process of many design firms like IDEO. The process at IDEO allows for the exploration of many ideas that, at first, may seem unfeasible. Discussing, implementing, and testing even seemingly unfeasible ideas often leads to innovative design strategies that separate companies like IDEO from their competition.23


Thomas Lockwood begins the book Building Design Strategy by juxtaposing Webster’s Dictionary definitions for design and strategy. Design is “a plan to make something,” and Corporate entities today face growing competistrategy is “a careful plan or method,” or “the tion in a global marketplace. When facing art of employing or devising plans.” Strategy complex challenges, strategic design becomes clearly overlaps with the goals of design. imperative for choosing a design approach. Lockwood’s premise is that when married, the A strategic edge often results in competitive two methods provide for higher chances of advantages for agencies seeking to increase sales success.20 Strategic design refers to the problem through brand differentiation. Companies who solving, methodologies, planning and manageplace substantial investments in visual communi- ment that modern designers take on.21 Strategy cation design want assurance their efforts will involves careful framing of a project to decide provide a return for the investment, and designers what will be designed and how the design will are taking on more responsibilities to assure this be brought to its end result. will happen.18 Frans Joziasse, a founding member of PARK (an international network of design For his article on strategy, Joziasse interviewed management consultancies), cites major trends design managers from multinational corporathat credit the emergence of design awareness tions and design agencies in an effort to further as a source for modern businesses gaining a define strategy. In compiling the results, three competitive edge. Among these, he identifies a main definitions are given: 1/ A plan; a direction growing understanding among today’s business or course of action. 2/ A position; namely, how leaders of design’s importance, including its to position particular products in particular impact on successful business efforts and its markets. 3/ A perspective; namely, the organizaresponsibility when those efforts fail.19 tion’s concept of business. Joziasse notes that many design managers see the role of strategy as Besides being assigned to an increasing share fundamental in advocating for a user’s needs. of the liability for any failures in the marketplace, designers also face other challenges, like audiAccording to Kevin McCullagh, co-founder of ences that may be fragmented and even span the product experience agency Plan, a number cultures. With an increasing number of choices of factors must be considered in developing an (in television channels, Internet sites, and other effective design strategy. In the article Strategy forms of media output) individuals have more for the Real World, McCullagh is concerned freedom to be selective. Small segments of inter- about strategy within the corporate marketest groups, a result of the multitude of choices, place, but the principles may be applied to other make it even more difficult for advertisers to communication efforts that are not driven by aggregate all viewers into one broad audience. competitive market ventures. Strategy should

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THE IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN STRATEGY Ethnography’s greatest potential in visual communication design is its use for revealing insights that inform design strategy.

Ethnography can play a valuable role in formulating strategies for visual communication programs because it helps unlock insights about the audience. It can be used to extract meaning and gain an understanding for behaviors that might otherwise be overlooked. For example, in some societies it is not possible for abused women to report their victimization simply because it is intolerable within the society’s acceptable conventions. Whereas a typical strategy for anti-violence might use messaging that attempts to get women to report more incidents of crime (an approach that is unlikely to be effective), ethnographers are able to provide a broad analysis of abuse within the scope of cultural phenomena. It is this analysis that allows ethnographers and designers to produce strategies that appeal to the receptive nature of an audience (e.g., targeting a male audience in an effort to negatively ‘rebrand’ the act of abuse). In short, ethnography reveals cultural meaning that allows designers to customize their efforts.

Ethnography can be especially helpful for efforts that are directed towards specific ethnic, cultural, political or societal groups. An example is ethnographic research that was aimed at understanding the use of cleaning products within Hispanic American households. Conducted by QualiData, ethnography brought to light the importance of olfactory signals in these households. Pine scents, as an indication of cleanliness, were overwhelmingly preferred over scentless cleaners. This insight allowed cleanser companies to modify products and target their advertising towards a new market.25

In contemporary urban settings, ethnography can be a technique to gain unique insights in the analysis of everyday life. Social groups undergo constant cultural changes that make even familiar audiences difficult to understand.25 Cheskin conducted ethnographic research for a company seeking to target its advertising by identifying specific user groups for food and beverage products during tailgating season. Ethnography led to the identification of four distinct user groups; and identified that two of the four would be receptive to advertising, and therefore worthwhile to target as an audience.27

Ethnography’s use, however, goes beyond achieving understanding of narrow or isolated audiences. Packaging for Nestlé’s baby formula is an example of a visual communication program that targeted a specific, but not isolated, demographic. To improve packaging for infant formula products, Nestlé wanted to understand mothers’ experiences around feeding and preparation. Portigal Consulting, a consumer research firm, interviewed mothers in their homes, observing and discussing formula preparation and feeding habits. To reduce mothers’ stress, they recommended a more intuitive labeling and packaging system that would lead to quick preparation when their babies were hungry and crying. Ethnography was especially useful because it was able to produce insights about mothers that may have otherwise been overlooked.26

These and the following case studies demonstrate the value of ethnography in visual communication design for exploratory, generative, and evaluative research. Using ethnography can help the field of visual communication design gain insight that is vital for its success. 25Mariampoliski, H. Ethnography for Marketers: A Guide to Consumer Immersion. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc, 2006. / 26Portigal, Steve. Personal Interview, April 2009. 27Stinson, Tommy. Personal Interview, February 2009.


ETHNOGRAPHY AND DESIGN STRATEGY In order to develop good strategies, designers must gain insight into their audience and form an understanding for their motivations. To gain these insights, designers must have clear knowledge of the audience’s communication style and a specific understanding of what they will respond to. Designers who are familiar with the goals, needs, and the everyday patterns of their audience produce more compelling strategies, which lead to more effective designs.

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Pine scents were overwhelmingly preferred when compared with scentless cleaners in Hispanic American households. This insight allowed cleanser companies to modify products and target their advertising towards a new market.

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1.6 CASE STUDIES IN VISUAL COMMUNICATION DESIGN AND ETHNOGRAPHY pg. 31

Ethnography as Evaluative Research KamaSutra Condom Advertising in Contemporary India William Mazzarella

Ethnography as Generative Research Teenage Drug Prevention in Contemporary United States Office of National Drug Control Policy

Ethnography as Exploratory Research HIV/AIDS Education in Rural India VSO / SOVA

Case Studies

Cultural knowledge from ethnographic field studies led to message repositioning: “You can protect your children from AIDS. Talk to them about sex. AIDS is not a sin.”

pg. 33

CASE STUDY 1: ETHNOGRAPHY AS EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

HIV/AIDS EDUCATION IN RURAL INDIA

Glasband arrived in Koraput without a specific project direction or goals. Her only goal was to identify what was most needed in terms of communication. To learn about individuals

Despite the challenges, Glasband gained insights that were helpful in determining directions for a few different communication approaches. Some of the existing HIV/AIDS materials focused their message on monogamy as a prevention technique for HIV/AIDS (e.g., the slogan: “Play cricket with everyone, have sex with only one”). Glasband realized this message was unrealistic in Koraput, especially for many of the tribal communities where sex is a taboo topic. It is used as a form of barter; and often women do not have a choice. Parents do not educate their children about sexual practices and it is widely believed that AIDS

is a sin, affecting only sex workers and drug addicts.29 This knowledge led Glasband to reposition the messaging; including the slogans, “You can protect your children from AIDS. Talk to them about sex.” and “AIDS is not a sin.” Glasband developed another new messaging strategy to address a problem within the HIV positive community in Koraput. SOVA holds monthly support meetings for HIV positive people, of which many people do not attend for fear their HIV status will be discovered. Glasband worked with this knowledge to strategize on creating a ‘fake’ brochure for HIV positive individuals to serve as an alibi for the support meetings. The brochures, still in planning, can serve as a believable excuse (e.g., a skills training workshop) that allows individuals to attend the meetings.29 28Voluntary Service Overseas website: www.vsointernational. org. / 29 Glasband, Debbie. Email message to Leslie MacNeil, March 2009.


Debbie Glasband was a VSO volunteer in the district of Koraput, India. Her assignment included a seven-month stay in Koraput, exploring concepts for creating promotional materials and professional documents, and consulting on community materials to raise awareness about HIV/AIDS prevention. Glasband was working directly with SOVA, a partner organization to VSO. Koraput has a population of both tribal and village people, and the diversity in languages makes communications a challenge. An audit of the existing HIV/AIDS communication materials (website, brochures, billboards, etc.) revealed that the English was difficult for the locals to understand, the images were small and unappealing, and the content was not logically structured.29

who receive the HIV/AIDS content, Glasband organized field visits. She did interviews (both one-on-one and group interviews) and carried out observations of the villagers. Gathering information was difficult for a variety of reasons, especially because it is very rare for villagers to see a white person. Glasband felt that her presence created a major disruption to life-as-usual—exactly what she was trying to observe. Children were especially difficult to speak with and were often scared by Glasband (many, in fact, were brought to tears when she tried to speak with them). To account for this, numerous visits were required that lasted for several hours at a time. Once the villagers were comfortable with her presence, they fell back into their routines and Glasband was able to observe normalcy in their lives.

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VSO (Voluntary Service Overseas) is an international nonprofit organization that aims to improve world poverty by tackling issues such as healthcare, education, and the prosperity of people with disabilities. It operates in developing countries, with a primary focus in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. VSO often uses ethnography in its approach. Volunteer designers live and work in the field, getting to know the audience before developing a communication approach.28

The campaign’s research shows that while teenagers do not like to be told what to do, they do look for facts and information that can help them make good choices.

pg. 35

CASE STUDY 2: ETHNOGRAPHY AS GENERATIVE RESEARCH

TEENAGE DRUG PREVENTION IN THE UNITED STATES Above the Influence is a nationwide campaign created in 2005 for the National Youth AntiDrug Media Campaign (a program of the Office of National Drug Control Policy) in the United States. The campaign advertising, targeted towards teenagers and their parents (as a secondary audience), is intended to strengthen anti-drug attitudes and behaviors. The campaign focuses primarily on teenage marijuana use.30

to be directly told what to do, they look for facts and information that helps them make good choices. Teenagers also seem to care more about their sustaining their friendships than they care about the physical, bodily damage that drug use may cause. To accommodate these findings, the campaign has tried to strike a balance between humor and metaphoric messages in its advertisements.31

The campaign focuses its delivery on outlets familiar to teenage lifestyles, advertising through cable television channels like MTV, Fuse, The N, Cartoon Network and Comedy Central. The Internet was selected as one of the main methods for delivering the messages, gaining exposure through web banner advertising, online games and quizzes, and AOL Instant Messenger buddy icons.33

Above the Influence relies heavily on audience research to inform all stages of the campaign. Ethnographic research, completed through what the research team termed “road trips,” was conducted with teenagers in nine states, engaging in discussions with circles of teenage friends. Researchers visited popular teenage locations (malls, coffee ships, bookstores, etc.) to learn about teenage behavior. “The research gave us insights into the importance of ensuring that the voice of the messages was essentially “teen to teen” by virtue of the consequences that teens see first-hand from drug use (more social consequences such as letting someone down or putting someone at risk than physical consequences), as well as tone and style, including the occasional use of humor.”31

Some of the campaign’s print ads feature the slogan “What’s the worst that could happen?” paired with images of human-like wasps and rodents playing with lethal products. One ad features two ‘teenage’ slugs, sitting at a kitchen table divvying out salt to each other. The television ads present provocative, yet openended messages. In one ad, a teenage boy plays basketball as his shadow follows him around the court. As he leaves to join his friend who is smoking marijuana on the side of the court, his shadow is left behind and the question is posed, “If you smoke weed, how much of yourself are you leaving behind?”

Researchers continually contribute reports that inform the strategy for Above the Influence advertisements, including qualitative, exploratory work, quantitative testing, and year-around tracking surveys.31

Above the Influence website: www.abovetheinfluence.com. Denniston, Robert. Email message to Leslie MacNeil, May 2009. / 32Schmuckler, Eric. Foote Cone & Belding. Mediaweek, June 2006. / 33Kotler, Philip and Lee, Nancy. Social marketing: Influencing Behaviors for Good. Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2008. 30

Foote Cone & Belding is an advertising agency that has worked on the Above the Influence campaign. “We wanted to be very ‘us to us’ in the way our creative was executed, and we made that come to life in media by choosing vehicles that felt very ‘us to us’—from a teen’s view rather than an authoritarian perspective,” said Ted Ellet, Media Director at Foote Cone & Belding.31


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Research provided the organizers of Above the Influence with a greater understanding for the teenage audience, allowing the campaign to shape its advertisements. The campaign’s research found that while teenagers do not like

The campaign has had widespread exposure, with the Above the Influence ads quickly reaching 60 percent of teenagers and the website receiving more than 3.7 million clicks. Teenage use of marijuana has dropped 19 percent since the launch of the campaign.

“ Why don’t we turn that around on its head, and see if we can associate some amount of sexiness with a condom . . . ‘Okay, if I’ve got to wear a condom, why don’t I at least go for a sexier one?’”

pg. 37

CASE STUDY 3: ETHNOGRAPHY AS EVALUATIVE RESEARCH

KAMASUTRA CONDOM ADVERTISING IN INDIA

Mazzarella largely attributes the success of the KamaSutra condom to its brand strategy. Involuntary sterilization camps, administered in the mid 1970s, had created a negative stigma surrounding India’s family planning efforts. Nirodh, distributed by the Indian government,

The campaign used quotations and the name from the ancient ‘Kamasutra,’ paired with contemporary images. One of the campaign ads read: “Over 3000 years ago, the Egyptians used linen sheaths. Casanova used condoms issued in standard service kits for men in the armed forces. The Beatles and Rock ‘n’ Roll and the sexual revolution ignored the condom to the dark side of the moon. And for years, there was an uncomfortable silence. And then came KamaSutra. The condom. Dedicated to the partners of lovemaking. And their pleasures.” The effectiveness of KamaSutra’s brand strategy is credited to several factors, including India’s 1991 liberation policy that began to allow foreign companies to advertise in India. Additionally, a rise of mass consumerism, a growing middle class population, and toleration of more liberal advertising messages contributed to the acceptance (and prosperity) of KamaSutra.34 Mazzarella’s fieldwork in Bombay consisted of informal conversations, in-depth interviews,

and historical analyses. He studied the key factors in KamaSutra’s development including its investors, Lintas:India, and relationships between the advertising agencies and the Indian government. Adi Pocha, the creative director for KamaSutra’s account, described KamaSutra’s brand positioning to Mazzarella, “If a guy is into sex, and he doesn’t wear a condom, chances are he’s doing it for a child. Or, just because he can’t care less. But if a guy wears a condom, that means he’s only into sex for the pleasure. Right? … But a condom is perceived as inhibiting pleasure. So we said, “Why don’t we turn that around on its head, and see if we can associate some amount of sexiness with a condom so that a guy who’s considering buying a condom says ‘Okay, if I’ve got to wear a condom, why don’t I at least go for a sexier one?’”34 Mazzarella, William. Shoveling Smoke: Advertising and Globalization in Contemporary India. Durham: Duke University Press, 2003.

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The launch of the KamaSutra campaign, considered far more luxurious than previous governmentally subsidized condoms called Nirodh, came in 1991. Surprisingly, KamaSutra ads caused India’s glamour magazines to fly off the shelves. The advertisements, a radical departure from previous advertising campaign strategies, pushed the boundaries of acceptable talk of sex in India’s public. The ads featured couples in surprisingly erotic sexual poses. “The woman’s head was thrown back, suggesting submission to a pleasure heightened by the discerning deployment of a KamaSutra condom,” describes Mazzarella.

were seen as an obstacle that prevented sexual pleasure. Mazzarella describes Nirodh condoms as thick, non-lubricated, and yellow; the word ‘Nirodh’ literally means restraint or control. The KamaSutra brand presented its condoms as a radical departure from Nirodh by selling the idea that KamaSutra condoms actually enhanced sexual pleasure.

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Over the course of several years, William Mazzarella, now University of Chicago Associate Professor of Anthropology and Social Sciences, conducted a detailed ethnographic study about the role of advertising in India in the 1980s and 90s. In Shoveling Smoke, Mazzarella provides a comprehensive analysis of the KamaSutra condom brand in Bombay, India in the 1990s as an effort to understand the underlying socio-economic factors that led to a significant change in India’s advertising culture.

The analysis of previous case studies shows that it is possible to use ethnographic research as an exploratory tool, a generative tool, or an evaluative tool. In visual communication design, ethnography seems to offer the most potential when it is used to unlock insights that inform a designer’s strategy.

specifically, a thirty-five percent increase in the world’s expenditure on health from 2003 to 2008. However, there are many improvements yet to be made and progress has been unequal. While many countries have benefited, there is a considerable number that are moving in the opposite direction.35

“In many regards, the responses of the health sector to the changing world have been inadequate and naïve. Inadequate, insofar as they not only fail to anticipate, but also to respond appropriately: too often with too little, too late or too much in the wrong place. Naïve insofar as a system’s failure requires a system’s solution – not a temporary remedy. Problems with human While ethnography has been studied extensively resources for public health and healthcare, in industrial design and interaction design, it finance, infrastructure or information systems is researched and documented to a lesser degree invariably extend beyond the narrowly defined in visual communication design. Ethnography health sector, beyond a single level of policy is equally valuable in visual communication purview and, increasingly, across borders: this fields like advertising and branding, especially as raises the benchmark in terms of working effecglobal efforts increase and audiences continue to tively across government and stakeholders.”35 fragment. Ethnography also holds great potential in visual communication design efforts that are Nowhere is the need to strengthen communitargeted towards the public good such as social cation materials greater than in the field of programming, philanthropic efforts, and public public health. As global health efforts rise, health programs. communication efforts extend across sociocultural boundaries to transfer urgent and According to the 2008 World Health Report, as vital information, inform and educate about a whole, people today live longer than they did potential risks, and urge people to make thirty years ago. Essential drugs that were once life-saving behavior changes. Ultimately, these difficult to get have become accessible in many efforts aim to bring improvement to the overall places throughout the world; and clean water, health and well-being of populations across sanitation, and prenatal care have all improved. the globe. Each of the presented case studies These developments may largely be attributed demonstrates ethnography’s use as a tool to to growth of the global health economy— educate or inform an audience about a health

threat. Even the KamaSutra condom campaign, an ethnographic brand analysis, relates to public health in that a condom’s underlying effect is safe sex. The following section addresses implementation methods for design projects that use ethnographic research. The analysis looks specifically at collaboration efforts between designers and ethnographers as an effort to address strengths and weaknesses in the process. Considering the perspectives of both designers and ethnographers, the study begins to answer how designers can best maximize collaboration efforts with ethnographers. This thesis addresses the value of ethnography in visual communication design, and how collaboration efforts might occur in the overlap between ethnography and design. Future study is recommended to identify specific methods for visual communication designers to use to identify scenarios when ethnography has the potential to add value to visual communications. Future research efforts should also work to educate visual communication designers on strategies and resources for implementing ethnographic design research. World Health Organization. World Health Report, 2008.

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Ethnography provides knowledge about cultural contexts. It is a primary research method that makes use of observational techniques in a participant’s natural setting. In contrast to articulated research techniques, ethnography does not rely on a person’s analysis of their own behavior (as in focus groups or surveys).

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1.7 CONCLUSION

COMMUNICATION EFFORTS EXTEND ACROSS CULTURES TO TRANSFER VITAL AND URGENT INFORMATION, AND URGE PEOPLE TO MAKE LIFE-SAVING BEHAVIOR CHANGES.

pg. 41

pg. 43 INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

An introduction to ethnographic techniques and processes, and recommendations for designer+ ethnographer collaboration.

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SECTION 2: INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

pg. 45

FIELD ETHNOGRAPHY

INTERVIEW & PHOTO ETHNOGRAPHY

RAPID ETHNOGRAPHY RAPID

LENGTHY Years+

Months

Weeks

Days

Hours -

FIELD ETHNOGRAPHY Field ethnography is the long-established method as performed by Malinowski. This technique primarily involves observations in natural settings. Researchers spend months and even years of field time conducting research and immersing themselves in the community that they are studying. By participating in the culture, observing interactions, and engaging in informal conversations, the researcher learns how the community functions. Research gathering and analysis may happen simultaneously throughout the fieldwork.5 Because it is often difficult and quite costly for modern research and design firms to conduct fieldwork that lasts for more than a few months, field ethnography is often abbreviated. Cheskin, a market research firm based in San Francisco, California, has a team of ethnographers on staff who typically spend from as short as four weeks to as long as two-and-a-half months doing fieldwork.27

INTERVIEW ETHNOGRAPHY In-depth, on-location interview sessions are a more modern way for conducting ethnography that involves less field time for the researcher. Interview ethnography involves a researcher who asks questions of an interviewee about a very specific area or subject of interest. Questions are unstructured (conducted in an open-ended format) and may be done to simulate or act out a process. The interview may be conducted while the researcher shadows the interviewee through various scenarios and processes.

PHOTO ETHNOGRAPHY Another modern way of conducting ethnography, photo ethnography techniques also require less field time than traditional field ethnography. Photo ethnography involves visual documentation as a means for observation. This can be completed by having a researcher take photographs at regular intervals of time or by recording a process with a video camera or other digital devices. Photo ethnography may even be conducted without a researcher at the scene of the interview. Interviewees may be asked to use photographs to document themselves carrying out a task or a process, which is very effective when a researcher’s presence would influence the person’s behavior. This information can later be viewed by the researcher for analysis of the situation.5

RAPID ETHNOGRAPHY The newest ways for quickly conducting ethnographic research, rapid ethnographies consist of a collection of techniques that are intended to provide insight while drastically reducing (or removing) the amount of time a researcher needs to spend in the field. Rapid ethnography is often done when budget constraints do not allow for more in-depth investigations. Flickr ethnography is one such recently founded ethnographic method. Researchers conduct keyword searches on Flickr, an online photo management/sharing application, to gather images that provide information about target user groups. Other rapid ethnography techniques include additional online searches that may be completed through Google’s image search (in similar fashion to Flickr searches) and data collected through blogs and websites.

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Ethnographic techniques vary in approach, philosophy, and duration. An overview of some of the most commonly used ethnographic techniques, used in a range of academic and business settings, includes the following:

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

2.1 OVERVIEW OF ETHNOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES

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1. PROPOSAL PROCESS Many agencies go through a proposal process as a means of being selected by clients for specific projects. Proposals often include an overview of a research/design approach that the agency recommends for the particular project. 2. RESEARCH PLANNING Before conducting field research, which is often costly for learning about a design audience, it is first important to formulate a detailed plan. Designers and researchers make decisions about the fieldwork, deciding who should participate, the methods for data collection, and the appropriate length and duration for the fieldwork.

3. FIELD STUDIES Field studies, conducted in a participant’s natural environment, may include observations, interviews, videography, and other methods of data collection. 4. ANALYSIS/SYNTHESIS Data is analyzed and insights are extracted from the ethnographic study during analysis/synthesis. A strategy is developed and ideation begins. 5. DESIGN The design phase begins with ideation and concept development, then moves forward into design, refinements, and finally, production.


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While the processes and the vocabulary used to describe the processes vary across design and research agencies, there are many overlapping stages that are used repeatedly in an ethnographic design process. A general process for a project involving ethnography and design involves the following stages:

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Ziba Design, Inc.; Portland, Oregon Wibke Fleischer / Senior Specialist, Insights & Trends Abby Margolis / Design Ethnographer William Reese / Director of Consumer Insights & Trends

Portigal Consulting; Pacifica, California Steve Portigal / Founder

Microsoft Surface; Redmond, Washington August de los Reyes / User Experience Director

Microsoft Research, Redmond; Washington Sue Jin Kim / User Experience Researcher

Cheskin Added Value; San Francisco, California Joanne Mendel / Director, Design Methods Practice Jan Yeager / Senior Designer LiAnne Yu / Strategic Director

Artefact, Seattle; Washington Gavin Kelly / Principal

Experience Collage Participants

The collage activity asked each of the participating groups to complete a process map of an ethnographic design process. Each participant was asked to contribute to the question, “how can designers and ethnographers collaborate in a design process?” To develop the activity, a method based on one documented by Elizabeth Sanders, a prominent design researcher, was referenced5. Additionally, Preetham Kolari, Senior Experience Researcher at Microsoft, provided a review of the collage materials and guidance for the research. To

begin, more than one hundred phrases and images were selected through a brainstorming process. The phrases and images were selected to relate to the process and interactions of what might occur in a design ethnography research project. Phrases and images provide the best selection when they are balanced, so the sets depict opposite meanings, as well as both concrete and abstract concepts and symbols. Care was also taken to maintain a variety of genders, ethnicities and ages in the images. After an initial assessment, the words and images were categorized and narrowed to avoid repetition, and new words and images were added to fill in gaps.

ethnographic research. Once the activity was mapped, the participants were provided with colored arrows to place on the collage. Green arrows symbolized collaboration nodes between the designer and ethnographer that were positive or productive. Red symbolized points of collaboration that went poorly or were unproductive. Blue arrows were representative for points in the process where there was no or little collaboration, but the participant wished there had been.

The collage participants were asked to think back on the last several projects they had worked on and use the words and images to map the process for a design effort that used

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The participants were then asked to describe the process, including the points of positive, negative, and desired collaboration. Sanders, Elizabeth. Contextmapping: Experiences from Practice. Design and the Arts, Vol. 1 No. 2, Taylor and Francis, 2005.

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Designers and design researchers from six firms completed an experience collage to provide insight about the intersection of design and ethnography, and the collaboration efforts that occur between designers, researchers, and anthropologists.


2.3 EXPERIENCE COLLAGES COLLABORATION BETWEEN DESIGNERS & ETHNOGRAPHERS

COLLAGE: ARTEFACT

pg. 51

Process for design + ethnography: 1/ Understand Situation 2/ Proposal 3/ Research (with design) 4/ Research Output 5/ Client Participation 6/ Design

Seattle, Washington Gavin Kelly Principal Artefact is a creative consultancy that employs both designers and researchers. Ethnography is a method Artefact regularly engages in as a means to formulate strategy for design. With both designers and researchers working together, Artefact is able to use an iterative approach in their process. By engaging in design ideation during the research phase, Artefact is able to test concepts while still conducting fieldwork. COLLABORATION OVERVIEW: Collaboration is integral to Artefact’s process. Kelly noted only positive collaboration efforts between designers and researchers, mapping no points of negative collaboration.


It is customary for Artefact to involve both a designer and a researcher in the fieldwork stage, and the strengths of each are maximized during this time. The researcher generally takes a lead role in gathering interviews from the subject. The designer, while still gaining first-hand experience, usually observes the process and focuses on the mechanics of field research, such as taking notes and video.

Opportunities for Improvement The one phase Kelly desires more designer/ researcher collaboration is during design development. It is difficult to engage the researcher during the design phase because they are often needed for other projects. According to Kelly, ideally researchers would be present to continually contribute to (and even challenge) the design development.

Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ detail of the beginning of the process highlighting positive collaboration efforts 3/ design ideation occurs during research and fieldwork at Artefact 2

Positive Collaboration Kelly mapped a majority of phases in the design process as ones that included positive collaboration efforts. Artefact generally pairs a designer and a researcher to work side-byside on projects.

COLLAGE: CHESKIN ADDED VALUE

pg. 53

Process for design + ethnography: 1/ Proposal 2/ Define Problem 3/ Preparation for Fieldwork 4/ Fieldwork 5/ Analysis 6/ Synthesis 7/ Strategy 8/ Reflection

San Francisco, California Joanne Mendel Director, Design Methods Practice Jan Yeager Senior Designer LiAnne Yu Strategic Director Cheskin is a leading market research firm in the United States. Cheskin uses ethnographic research as a method for identifying market strategies and developing market segments. COLLABORATION OVERVIEW: Cheskin employs both designers and anthropologists, allowing them to collaborate through much of the process. There are several positive points of collaboration, especially in the middle of the process. Cheskin is continually working to better their strategy for collaboration.


Opportunities for Improvement Researchers shoulder a large amount of the work leading up to fieldwork. Designers are often busy with their own workload, which sometimes prevents them from participating in this preparatory stage. It would be beneficial if there could be more collaboration during this time. While Cheskin tries to include designers in fieldwork, budget constraints sometimes prevent them from being in the field with researchers. When able to participate, designers contribute significantly by gaining their own insights and gaining a holistic picture of the project. It is especially important for designers and researchers to be in regular communication (via phone or even blogs) if designers cannot be present. The Cheskin team placed a red arrow during the ‘reflections’ phase at the end of the process, representing a difficulty in finding time to reflect on the process once it is finished.

Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ a period of fuzziness often follows fieldwork 3/ detail of the middle of the process with blue, green, and red arrows 2

Positive Collaboration There are several positive points of collaboration during Cheskin’s process. Specifically, there is a gray period immediately following the fieldwork—when the pieces have not quite come together and there is a shared feeling of fuzziness and anxiety. When designers and researchers collaborate during this period, each brings unique problem solving skills and different perspectives, leading to a sense of excitement at the end of the phase when ideas begin to flow and both parties continue to work together.

COLLAGE: MICROSOFT ENTERTAINMENT & DEVICES

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Process for design + ethnography: 1/ Frame Goals & Purpose 2/ Research Planning 3/ Action 4/ Analysis / Synthesis 5/ Execution (of design)

Redmond, Washington Sue Jin Kim User Experience Researcher A design researcher at Microsoft, Kim regularly conducts ethnographic research to inform design at Microsoft. Kim was trained as an interaction designer before moving into the field of design planning. COLLABORATION OVERVIEW: In general, Kim believes that collaboration efforts during the design process are positive. She maps points of positive collaboration throughout the process. As an overarching goal, Kim believes there should be more collaboration between designers and ethnographers through the entire process. Designers tend to design in an exclusive or secretive manner, and the process would improve if there were more interactions.


Opportunities for Improvement Kim placed red arrows in the beginning stages of the process, representing the potential for unproductive collaboration with designers. Kim says that designers often focus on specific ideas and deliverables, and this is sometimes a source of frustration for researchers. Researchers have a broader approach when defining project goals and planning design research. Kim wishes there were more interactions during the middle stages of the process. Her observation is that designers are often exclusive during the design/research process, only presenting work when it is in a somewhat formalized state. Researchers work in the opposite way, with transparency throughout the process. When designers work exclusively, they may formulate their own insights and develop design without the researcher’s considerations. Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ Sue Jin wishes there could be more collaboration during fieldwork 3/ detail of the beginning of the process, with positive and negative interactions

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Positive Collaboration In Kim’s process, positive interactions take place throughout the process. She notes that designers collaborate well by generating ideas, finding insights in field research, and contributing in concept development and visualizations. In the beginning of the process, Kim particularly enjoys working with designers who often bring enthusiasm to the project.

COLLAGE: MICROSOFT SURFACE

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Process for design + ethnography: 1/ Formulate Hypothesis 2/ Planning (for research) 3/ In Situ Research 4/ Analysis 5/ Synthesis 6/ Design Development

Redmond, Washington August de los Reyes User Experience Director Reyes, a designer for Microsoft’s Surface (an interactive, tabletop display) teams with ethnographers in the design process as an effort to arrive at a research question and articulate design problems. COLLABORATION OVERVIEW: Reyes identifies many points of positive collaboration. While there are also a few points of negative collaboration, the main finding is Reyes’ desire for ethnographers to be involved in the entire process including the initial phase (formulate hypothesis) and the final stage (design development). Opportunities for Improvement The only potential for an unproductive exchange occurs during research planning. Difficulties may arise when coming to an agreement on the design problem and methods for gathering data.

Reyes wishes the designer were present more during the in situ stages of the design/research process. The budget and perceived lack of value surrounding this activity often prevent the designer from doing so. If present, the designer could bring their direct observations into guiding design strategy.


Ethnographers are often absent during the beginning and the end of the process, but Reyes wishes for more collaboration at these stages. Ethnographers could assist in validating the design question and framing opportunities for research methods if they were present in the beginning. Ethnographers could provide additional interpretations and further clarifications on the research findings if they were to be present at the end of the process.

Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ detail of the design stage, in which more ethnographer collaboration is desired 3/ more ethnographer collaboration is desired in the beginning 2

Positive Collaboration Positive collaboration interactions occur during planning, in situ research, analysis, and synthesis. During the research planning, collaboration is critical. Reyes considers this time the most important point of exchange because there is the potential for positive (as well as unproductive) collaboration efforts.

COLLAGE: PORTIGAL CONSULTING

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Process for design + ethnography: 1/ Define Problem / Proposal 2/ Detailed Planning 3/ Fieldwork 4/ Synthesis 5/ Share 6/ Ideate 7/ Viability

Pacifica, California Steve Portigal Founder Portigal Consulting provides ethnographic and other forms of customer research to develop recommendations for the design of products and packaging, among others. Note: Portigal’s experience primarily reflects collaboration with clients, which may or may not include the design team. COLLABORATION OVERVIEW: Portigal believes that most collaboration efforts during the research process are positive. In fact, he placed green arrows at every phase where collaboration occurs. Portigal also desires to have more collaboration through much of the process.


Opportunities for Improvement Portigal included only two points of potentially unproductive collaboration, occurring in the first two phases of design. Portigal feels that he sometimes needs to convince clients to reframe original problem statements in order to reach the best potential project outcome. Portigal desires more flexibility in suggesting alternative research methodologies. Portigal notes that often the insights gained from research do not make their way into the client’s work. The clients, while usually in agreement with Portigal’s recommendations, sometimes conclude the recommendations are not feasible to implement at that time. This is perhaps where time spent in the field can influence a client to make changes.

Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ detail of the inputs in the beginning phases of research 3/ detail of the beginning stages, where both positive and negative collaborations occur 2

Positive Collaboration Portigal noted that the most valuable collaboration efforts occur during fieldwork. Participating in field studies helps the client see what is actually happening and gives them enthusiasm for the project. Because collaboration is very productive at this stage, Portigal desires for more of it.

COLLAGE: ZIBA DESIGN, INC.

pg. 61

Process for design + ethnography: 1/ Proposal development 2/ Kick-off / immersion 3/ Gather brand/marketplace knowledge 4/ Research protocol development 5/ Fieldwork 6/ Synthesis 7/ Concepting 8/ Design and development Portland, Oregon Wibke Fleischer Senior Specialist, Insights & Trends Abby Margolis Design Ethnographer William Reese Director of Consumer Insights & Trends Ziba is a design consultancy with designers, anthropologists, and researchers on staff. Ziba conducts ethnographic research to understand the beliefs, values, and behaviors of the individuals they are designing for. COLLABORATION OVERVIEW: The Ziba team found the overall collaboration effort to be positive, especially when designers let the researchers take the lead during the intensive research periods, and the researchers let the designers take the lead during the design phase. Collaboration efforts during fieldwork were particularly noteworthy. Interactions during this phase can range in their effectiveness.

The Ziba team desires more collaboration during the majority of the process. Ziba especially finds benefits to including researchers in the design/ development stages, which sometimes does not occur. A researcher’s presence assures that the design is developed according to the actionable frameworks that were previously identified.


Opportunities for Improvement If designers are not trained in research, they sometimes jump directly to ‘why’ questions, whereas researchers usually ask ‘how’ questions. ‘Why’ questions attempt to force a direct explanation from participants, whereas ‘how’ questions follow a participant’s experience more closely, and thus yield better information. However, the Ziba team also placed a blue arrow in field studies, indicating a definite desire for designers to be present in the field. It is possible that designers may misinterpret research findings if they are unable to experience fieldwork first-hand.

Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ detail of jump from the concepting to design, with desire for more collaboration 3/ detail of the fieldwork phase with blue, green, and red arrows 2

Positive Collaboration There are several phases where collaboration efforts are positive, including research protocol and tool development, fieldwork, and frameworks/concepting. Field studies have particular potential for positive collaboration because designers gain direct exposure to the experience when they are present, which benefits the design process that follows.

fluctuate throughout the process. While researchers and designers should participate throughout the research and design process, researchers should take the lead during research planning and field studies. Designers

DESIGNER

pg. 63

The levels of responsibility for designers and researchers

RESEARCHER Proposal

Research Planning

Field Studies

Analysis/Synthesis

Ideation

Design

Refinement

Production

Understanding

should take the lead during design and design production. The proposal, analysis/synthesis, ideation, refinement and production phases are split fairly equally.

The levels of responsibility for designers and researchers fluctuate throughout the process. While there are commonly points in the process where collaboration efforts produce negative results, the overarching trend is that most painpoints occur when either the designer or the researcher is absent. This occurs consistently through all phases in the process. For best results, researchers should take the lead during research planning and field studies. Designers should take the lead during design and design production. The proposal, analysis/ synthesis, ideation, refinement and production phases are split fairly equally.

RESEARCH PLANNING & FIELD STUDIES Ethnographers should take the lead when planning research and doing field visits because they are trained in specific questioning, but the designer’s presence is still recommended. While often prevented from participating in fieldwork by budget constraints, a designer contributes by adding an alternative perspective, their own insights, and design thinking. Information gathered by ethnographers and subsequently passed down to designers is not as affective as information witnessed first-hand by the designer. Designers may suffer from misconceptions from simply not being there. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT Similarly, designers should take the lead during the design and production phases, but a researcher’s input is advantageous to have during this time. Researchers are skilled at being able to relate the developing design back to user insights—ensuring a user-centered frame of mind. In the absence of an ethnographer, the design might veer off course into a direction not fully supported by research findings.

FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings from the collage activities, it is recommended that in order to produce the best possible results in a design and ethnography effort, designers and ethnographers should work in tandem throughout the entire process. While each discipline brings strengths to the process and should take the lead at various stages, the presence of the other serves as a real benefit throughout the process to ensure understandings and insights are grounded.

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Lines are commonly blurred between the roles of designers and researchers. Designers and researchers who work together over time begin to take on each other’s roles, sharing sensibilities from each discipline. In fact, several of the researchers who participated in the experience collages were educated in design and went into research fields later in their careers.


2.4 COLLABORATION MODEL FOR DESIGNERS AND DESIGN RESEARCHERS

pg. 65

ROLES ARE OFTEN BLURRED. DESIGNERS + ETHNOGRAPHERS SHOULD WORK IN TANDEM. COLLABORATION IS IDEAL FOR ALL PROCESS PHASES.

pg. 67

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Designed and written by Leslie MacNeil Printed in an edition of 50 copies Cover 130# Mohawk Superfine Double Thick Cover, Ultrawhite, Eggshell Inside 100# Mohawk Superfine Text, Ultrawhite, Eggshell Printed in Denver, Colorado by Prescient Solutions Incorporated Copyright © 2009 by Leslie MacNeil Weber. This document may be reprinted and distributed for non-commercial and educational purposes only, and not for resale. All other rights reserved.

DESIGN ETHNOGRAPHY: STRATEGY FOR VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS Ethnography, a field of anthropological study and a research technique, helps visual communication designers create materials that evoke meaning and inspire action in their audiences. Ethnography enables a designer’s understanding by uncovering cultural contexts and social norms.