Climate Change: Subject Profile - Scottish Parliament

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May 25, 2016 - Climate Change: Subject Profile ... Source: IPCC 2013a, Figure SPM 1b ...... Source: http://climateaction
The Sc ottish Parliament and Scottis h Parliament Infor mation C entre l ogos .

SPICe Briefing

Climate Change: Subject Profile 25 May 2016 16/41 Dan Barlow This briefing is written for the benefit of both new MSPs and those returning to the Parliament. It provides an overview of the main climate change issues. It highlights the latest climate science, outlines the global, EU, UK frameworks for addressing climate change and focuses on the main legislative and policy provisions in Scotland. The briefing also sets out how emissions in Scotland have reduced to date and some of the ways that climate change issues have been considered in previous parliamentary sessions. More detailed briefings on climate change topics will be produced throughout the parliamentary session. Observed change in average surface temperature 1901-2012

Source: IPCC 2013a, Figure SPM 1b

CONTENTS

KEY POINTS ................................................................................................................................................................ 3 GLOBAL CONTEXT .................................................................................................................................................... 4 CLIMATE SCIENCE ................................................................................................................................................. 4 IMPACTS, ADAPTATION AND VULNERABILITY................................................................................................... 4 MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE ..................................................................................................................... 5 THE UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE (UNFCCC) .............................. 6 INTERNATIONAL CLIMATE NEGOTIATIONS........................................................................................................ 6 Paris 2015 ............................................................................................................................................................ 6 EUROPE ..................................................................................................................................................................... 11 TARGETS............................................................................................................................................................... 11 EMISSION REDUCTION PATHWAYS .................................................................................................................. 11 EMISSIONS TRADING SYSTEM .......................................................................................................................... 12 EU INTENDED NATIONALLY DETERMINED CONTRIBUTION .......................................................................... 12 UNITED KINGDOM .................................................................................................................................................... 12 UK CLIMATE CHANGE ACT ................................................................................................................................. 12 UK AMBITION AND PARIS 2015 OUTCOMES ..................................................................................................... 13 SCOTLAND ................................................................................................................................................................ 13 CLIMATE CHANGE (SCOTLAND) ACT 2009 ....................................................................................................... 13 Annual Targets ................................................................................................................................................... 14 Report on Proposals and Policies ...................................................................................................................... 14 Mandatory reporting ........................................................................................................................................... 15 EMISSION REDUCTIONS TO DATE .................................................................................................................... 15 MEETING OUR FUTURE TARGETS .................................................................................................................... 16 MULTIPLE BENEFITS ........................................................................................................................................... 17 CLIMATE BILL PROPOSAL ................................................................................................................................... 17 ADAPTATION......................................................................................................................................................... 18 Scotland’s Approach to Date ............................................................................................................................. 18 CLIMATE CHANGE ‘MAINSTREAMING’ IN THE SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT ...................................................... 19 Draft Scottish Budget ......................................................................................................................................... 19 Report on Proposals and Policies (RPP2) ......................................................................................................... 20 CLIMATE JUSTICE ................................................................................................................................................ 20 CLIMATE CHANGE SCRUTINY DURING SESSION 4 OF THE SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT ............................... 21 SOURCES .................................................................................................................................................................. 22 RELATED BRIEFINGS .............................................................................................................................................. 26

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KEY POINTS Key policy action / legislation

Future developments

Climate Change Bill

The SNP manifesto includes a commitment to bring forward a new Climate Change Bill. The commitment includes setting a target to reduce emissions by at least 50% by 2020.

The Third Report on Proposals and Policies (Meeting the Emissions Reduction Targets 2028-2032).

The Scottish Government are developing their next plan that sets how they intend to meet their forthcoming climate change goals (Report on Proposals and Polices 3). It is expected that a draft of this plan will be laid in the Scottish Parliament later in 2016 for Parliamentary scrutiny.

Scottish Government annual Data on Scottish greenhouse gas emissions in 2014 is assessments of greenhouse gas expected to be published in June 2016. The report will emissions in Scotland. highlight whether Scotland met the fifth annual emission reduction target. Climate Change Adaptation Programme

The UK Committee on Climate Change are due to publish their first assessment of Scotland’s progress implementing the Climate Change Adaptation Programme in 2016.

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GLOBAL CONTEXT Under the auspices of the United Nations, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) prepare comprehensive reports about climate change at regular intervals based on the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic information. The Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) sets out the current state of scientific knowledge and comprises three Working Group reports that cover: 

the science of climate change



impacts, adaptation and vulnerability to climate change



mitigation of climate change.

CLIMATE SCIENCE Working Group I (WG1) (IPCC 2013a) reports that observations of climate change include an average increase in land and ocean temperature of 0.85 oC between 1880 and 2012, reductions in annual mean Arctic sea ice equivalent to 3.5 - 4.1% per decade between 1979 and 2012 and a rise in global mean sea level of 0.19m between 1901 and 2010. The IPCC Summary for Policy Makers (IPCC 2013b) states that: ‘Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, sea level has risen, and the concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased.’ The report also states that ‘It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century’ and that ‘substantial and sustained’ cuts in greenhouse gas emissions would be required to curb climate change. The report sets out four emission scenarios. In three of these temperatures are likely to exceed 1.5 oC by 2100 (compared to 1850-1900), and in two scenarios they are likely to exceed 2oC.

IMPACTS, ADAPTATION AND VULNERABILITY Climate change adaptation is defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2001) as ‘adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities’. As a result of the release of greenhouse gas emissions to date impacts of climate change are already being observed. These relate to increases in global average and air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global average sea level. Past and current greenhouse gas emissions also mean that the world is committed to some level of further climate change in the future, and the IPCC (2007) note that ‘even the most stringent mitigation efforts cannot avoid further impacts of climate change in the next few decades’. The report of Working Group II (WGII) (IPCC 2014a) highlights impacts that include changes in the quantity and quality of water resources, changes in the geographic range and abundance of many species, and an overall reduction in crop yields. It also notes that marginalised people are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The report finds that experience is growing in the public and private sector and within communities, and governments are 4

beginning to prepare adaptation plans and policies. The report notes that greater warming will increase the likelihood of ‘severe, pervasive, and irreversible impacts’.

MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE Working Group III (WGIII) (IPCC 2014b) considers the mitigation of climate change. The report identifies the four largest sources of emissions in 2010 as i) electricity and heat production, ii) agriculture, forestry and land use, iii) industry and iv) transport. Emissions from electricity and heat are further broken down to reflect how the electricity and heat are consumed and these are sometimes referred to as ‘indirect’ emissions (Figure 1) Figure 1 - Global greenhouse gas emissions by sector

Source: IPCC 2014b SPM.2 Between 2000 and 2010 greenhouse gas emissions increased by an average of 2.2% per year. The report cites economic growth and population growth as the two most significant drivers of increasing CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion. According to the WGIII report scenarios consistent with achieving carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere that are ‘likely’ to limit warming to less than 2 oC above pre-industrial levels are characterised by reductions in global GHG emissions of 40 to 70% in 2050 compared to 2010, rapid increases in energy efficiency and more than tripling the share of zero- and lowcarbon energy supply by 2050. The WGIII report highlights that despite a significant increase in plans and strategies aimed at curbing climate emissions there has “not yet been a substantial deviation in global emissions from the past trend.” The authors also suggest that delays to mitigation efforts will make the transition to low emission levels over the longer-term more challenging and constrain the options available to ensure that temperature rise is limited to below 2 oC. 5

A more detailed summary of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report is available in a SPICe briefing published in September 2014 (Barlow 2014).

THE UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE (UNFCCC) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international environmental treaty. The treaty was negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992. This conference is more widely known as the Earth Summit. The objective of the treaty is to ‘stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system’ (United Nations 1992). The treaty does not set binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries, however it provides a basis for negotiating specific treaties or ‘protocols’ to establish binding limits on emissions of greenhouse gasses.

INTERNATIONAL CLIMATE NEGOTIATIONS To date 196 countries have signed up to the Convention and these are referred to as Parties. These countries have met annually since 1995 in meetings referred to as Conferences of the Parties (COP). Under this framework a number of global initiatives and commitments on climate change have been achieved to date. In 1997 (COP3) the Kyoto Protocol was agreed setting out a legally binding commitment for developed countries to reduce emissions by 2012. In 2010 the Cancún agreements noted that future global warming should be limited to less than 2oC above pre industrial levels. At Durban in 2011 (COP17) over 120 countries proposed that a legal framework for reducing emissions be completed by 2015 and come into effect no later than 2020. In 2013 (COP19) countries agreed to submit national plans for emission reductions by the first quarter or 2015 and for developed countries to make funding available to support developing countries reduce their emissions and adapt to climate change. More information about the UNFCCC (often referred to as ‘the Convention’), the outcomes of the annual meetings on climate change (Conferences of the Parties (COP)) held as part of the Convention, and background to the Paris 2015 meeting (COP21) are available in a SPICe briefing published in October 2015 (Barlow 2015).

Paris 2015 The last COP meeting took place in place in Paris in December 2015. The meeting sought to secure an agreement that binds nations to a global approach that reduces emissions in line with keeping global mean surface temperature rise to less than 2 oC. As part of this initiative countries were asked to prepare and submit their emission reduction plans and proposals in advance.

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The meeting resulted in the adoption of the Paris Agreement (UNFCCC 2015) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The agreement is accompanied by a longer document detailing the decisions made at the summit. The Paris Agreement is a legally binding document and includes a mix of legally binding commitments (e.g. ‘countries shall’) and non-legally binding commitments (e.g. ‘countries should’) (Sindico, 2015, New Climate Institute, 2015). No enforcement mechanism exists to penalise any party that does not comply, however the agreement establishes a committee that shall be ‘transparent, non-adversarial and non-punitive’ and ‘facilitate implementation and promote compliance’ with the agreement.

Key provisions The agreement makes a number of provisions. Some of the key aspects are summarised below. Temperature The agreement states that global average temperature rise should be limited to ‘well below’ 2 oC and includes a commitment to ‘pursue efforts’ to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 oC above pre-industrial levels. Context: At the UN climate summit COP meeting in 2010 global leaders signed up to the Cancun agreements noting that future global warming should be limited to less than 2 oC above preindustrial levels. A number of scientists have suggested that the global to limit average temperature to below 2 oC is not sufficient. Many countries, including those that are particularly low lying and vulnerable to the impacts of climate change have also previously advocated a goal of limiting warming to 1.5 oC. To date global temperature has risen by approaching 1 oC (Met Office 2015). Emissions peaking The agreement states that parties should aim for global greenhouse gas emissions to peak ‘as soon as possible’ and be followed by ‘rapid reductions’ in emissions to secure a balance between emissions of greenhouse gases and removals by sinks (for example forests) ‘in the second half of this century’. The agreement also states that developed countries should secure economy-wide emission reduction targets with developing countries ‘encouraged’ to move towards such targets over time. Context: The global temperature rise is largely determined by the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions released – often referred to as cumulative emissions. The IPCC suggest that limiting global warming caused by human activity to less than 2 oC requires total CO2 emissions from all human sources to be limited to, in total, 2900 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide (GtCO2). By 2011 around 1900 GtCO2 had been released leaving a budget of approximately 1000 GtCO 2 (IPCC 2014b). 7

The later that global emissions peak, the steeper the following emissions reduction must be for cumulative emissions to be consistent with those required to limit warming to 2 oC. Work led by the Met Office (2012) has previously suggested that on the basis of their scenarios, it is not possible to limit global warming to 1.5 oC: ‘The greenhouse gas emissions pathways generated by the models used in this study could not find a feasible path to a 50% chance of global temperature rise of less than 1.6 °C. A 1.6 °C limit could only be adhered to by designing a pathway at the absolute extremes of what is presently considered feasible’ The authors have suggested that on the basis of a 50% chance of being able to limit warming to 2 oC emissions must start to fall by 2016 and then decline at a rate of 3.5% if techniques aimed at removing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere net negative emissions) are not included (see discussion later on net negative emissions). Ambition review The agreement includes a ‘global stocktake’ every 5 years to assess overall progress towards the goals of the agreement, starting in 2023. Alongside this the agreement includes a commitment that all countries will share details of a nationally determined contribution every 5 years. The agreement requires a ‘progression over time’ in the efforts that Parties make towards achieving the goals of the agreement. Context In 2014 all countries signed up to the UNFCCC agreed to set out the actions and commitments they would take towards the goal of tackling climate change in advance of the Paris 2015 Climate Summit. This information takes the form of an ‘intended nationally determined contribution’ or INDC. In October 2015 the UNFCCC published a report on the 146 Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) that had been received by 1 October. The INDCs submitted included those by the America, China, the EU and India. The emission reduction commitments included in the INDCs fall short of those required to limit global average temperature increase to below 2 oC (UNFCCC 2015a). Analysis by Climate Action Tracker (2015) has suggested that the pledges would result in warming of around 2.7 oC. (Figure 2). The text accompanying the agreement identifies the need to address the gap between ambition and the commitments set out in the INDCs and states: ‘...the estimated aggregate greenhouse gas emission levels in 2025 and 2030 resulting from the intended nationally determined contributions do not fall within least-cost 2 oC scenarios….much greater emission reduction efforts will be required than those associated with the nationally determined contributions in order to hold the increase in the global average temperature to below 2 oC above pre-industrial levels by reducing emissions to 40 gigatonnes or to 1.5 oC above pre-industrial levels’ Climate finance The agreement requires developed countries to provide financial support to developing countries to help them reduce emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change and states that the minimum should be USD 100 billion per year by 2020. The agreement includes a commitment that this level of funding extend until 2025 when a new finance goal would be agreed. The agreement states that the allocation of financial resources should achieve a balance between mitigation and adaptation and reflect the priorities and needs of developing 8

countries – especially those that have limited capacity and are particularly exposed to the adverse impacts of climate change. The agreement also requires developed countries to ‘take the lead’ in securing finance from a variety of sources that help support climate action. Context There is a significant variation in the amount of emissions that different countries are responsible for, and their ability to prevent and adapt to the impacts of climate change. The UNFCCC recognises the need for those countries with more resources to support those that have more limited resources and are more vulnerable, and has established approaches to provide this funding. In 2013 developed country members of the UNFCCC were requested to share details every two years reflecting their strategies and approaches to increase climate finance over the period 2014-2020. In their report ‘Biennial Assessment and Overview of Climate Finance Flows’ the UNFCCC estimate that financing from developed to developed countries and reported to the UNFCCC is estimated at $28.775 billion in 2011 and $28.863 billion in 2012 (UNFCCC 2014). Adaptation The agreement places considerable emphasis on adaptation and establishes a goal of ‘enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate change.’ To support the implementation of this goal the agreement: 

Requires all parties ‘as appropriate’ to plan and implement adaptation efforts.



Suggests that parties report on adaptation, including the provision of details of their priorities and need for support.



Requires that the five-year global stock take of progress considers progress towards the adaptation goal and the level of support provided for adaptation.

Context Under the UNFCCC a number of commitments have been made to support climate adaptation. In 2001 a programme of work was launched aimed at supporting Least Developed Countries (LDCs) to identify and report their adaptation needs. In 2011 the Cancun Adaptation Programme was adopted to bolster action on climate adaptation and included commitments for developed countries to provide finance, technology and capacity building support to developing countries. Many developing countries were keen that the Paris agreement further strengthened commitments on adaptation. Issues and challenges Ambition vs. commitments As noted above a gap exists between the scale of the ambition reflected in the agreement and the emission reduction pledges that participating parties have provided to date. The agreement sets out a commitment to limit temperature rise to less than 2 oC and an aspiration to limit it to 1.5 oC. The current INDC commitments would result in temperature rise of approximately 2.7 oC and projected global emissions of 55 GtCO2e in 2030. In order to deliver the ambition set out in the agreement the INDC review process will need result in an aggregate increase in INDC emission reduction commitments. In addition the agreement does not include 9

a specific date by which global emissions need to peak. Analysis by Climate Action Tracker (2015) provides a projection of greenhouse gas emissions based on current policies, pledges and submitted INDCs and those consistent with limiting warming to 2 oC and 1.5 oC. Figure 2 – A comparison of greenhouse gas emissions based on current policies, pledges and submitted INDCs and those consistent with limiting warming to 2 oC and 1.5 o C.

Source: http://climateactiontracker.org/global.html

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Negative emissions approaches The agreement refers to achieving ‘a balance between anthropogenic1 emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this century’. Most of the emission scenarios associated with limiting global warming to 2 oC that the IPCC (2014c) considered rely on both reducing emissions at source and using negative emission technologies in the form of afforestation and bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) in the second half of this century2. A number of experts and stakeholders have cautioned against the emphasis on BECCS. Kevin Anderson (Deputy Director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research UK) has questioned the scale and ‘speculative’ nature of relying heavily on BECCS, suggesting instead that the focus should be on rapid reductions in energy demand and replacing fossil fuels with zero-carbon alternatives (Anderson 2015).

EUROPE TARGETS The EU set a target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20% by 2020 (from 1990 levels) and these were enacted in legislation in 2009. In 2011 the European Commission published A roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050, the document suggests that the EU should cut emissions by 80% below 1990 levels and identifies milestones of a 40% cut by 2030 and 60% cut by 2040 (European Commission 2011). More recently as part of the 2030 climate and energy framework adopted by EU leaders in October 2014 the EU agreed a target to cut emissions by at least 40% by 2030 (from 1990 levels). According to the EU achieving the 40% target would require a 43% cut in emissions from those sectors covered by the EU emissions trading system (ETS) (compared to 2005) and 30% cut in emissions from non-ETS sectors (compared to 2005).

EMISSION REDUCTION PATHWAYS As part of the EU low carbon economy roadmap the European Commission undertook some scenario analysis and modelling to consider the potential reductions that could be achieved on a sector-by-sector basis in line with achieving an overall cut in emissions of 80% by 2050. Their emission reduction pathways (European Commission 2011) suggest: 

A complete decarbonisation of the power sector.



Cuts in emissions from transport of between 54% and 67% as a result of improved vehicle efficiency, electrification and pricing mechanisms.



A reduction in emissions from the building sector of around 90% as a result of improved efficiency and the deployment of low carbon/renewable energy.

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Anthropogenic emissions are those greenhouse gas emissions that are a result of human activities, for example from the burning of fossil fuels. 2 Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) has the potential to result in as the biomass used to create energy (e.g. trees and crops) absorb carbon emissions during their growth and emissions created when the biomass is burned can be captured using carbon capture and storage.

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Reductions in emissions from the industrial sector of between 83 and 87% by 2050 through improved industrial processes, more recycling and abatement technologies (for example carbon capture and storage).



Cuts in emissions from agriculture of between 42% and 49% achieved through a variety of approaches that include better manure management, fertiliser efficiency and practices that sequester carbon in the soil.

EMISSIONS TRADING SYSTEM The EU ETS is a tool designed to cut greenhouse gas emissions from large-scale facilities in the power and industry sectors and from aviation. Emissions from this sector are referred to as the ‘traded sector’. The ETS is a ‘cap and trade’ system. A cap is set which limits the total volume of emissions from all participants within the system. Within this cap organisations are allocated or can buy emissions allowances and each year they need to surrender allowances that are equivalent to their emissions. The cap is reduced over time so that overall emissions from the ‘traded’ sector fall. Emissions from other sectors are described as being in the ‘nontraded’ sector - examples include residential, transport, agriculture. The ETS covers around 45% of the EU’s greenhouse gas emissions. A number of groups have argued for the ETS to be strengthened and for the cap on emissions available under the ETS to be reduced (Sandbag 2013, Sandbag 2016).

EU INTENDED NATIONALLY DETERMINED CONTRIBUTION The INDC submitted by the EU in the run up to Paris 2015 (UNFCCC 2015) commits the EU to a 40% reduction by 2030. However as noted by the CCC (2015a) given that current global emission cut pledges fall short of those required to meet the ambition of the agreement some nations will have to ‘ratchet up effort – potentially over relatively short periods of time.’ The CCC have suggested that this ‘might include the EU as a whole’. The CCC (CCC 2015b) has suggested that the EU 2030 target is less than equivalent to a ‘fair’ EU share of an emissions reduction pathway compatible with achieving a 2 oC limit. The CCC also provide an estimate of what would constitute a fair share of reductions to achieve a 2 oC warming for EU and suggest that an emission reduction target for 2030 should range from 4571%.

UNITED KINGDOM UK CLIMATE CHANGE ACT The Climate Change Act 2008 commits the UK to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 80% from 1990 levels by 2050. The Act also 

Requires the Government to set up interim five-yearly ‘carbon budgets’ for GHG emissions.



Establishes the Committee on Climate Change (CCC) to provide advice to the Government on emissions targets and report on progress towards these. 12



Requires the Government to produce a National Adaptation Plan that assesses the risks to the UK from climate change and prepares a strategy to address them.

The first four carbon budgets have been set in legislation and the UK is currently in the second carbon budget period (2013–17). According to the CCC (2015), meeting the fourth carbon budget (2023–27) would require a 50% cut in emissions by 2025 compared to 1990. Between 1990 and 2014 greenhouse gas emissions in the UK have been reduced by 36%. The Government are due to set the fifth carbon budget (2028-2032) in law by June and the CCC have recommended that the budget achieves a 57% reduction in emissions from 1990 to 2030. The Committee (CCC 2015a) state that emissions from the traded sector are set to be cut by 54% by 2030 and their proposed reduction would therefore match cuts from the traded sector with reductions from the non-traded sector (e.g. transport, buildings). According to the UK CCC ‘A less ambitious fifth budget would therefore mean either a back-tracking on existing commitments (i.e. the fourth carbon budget) or a failure to progress towards 2050. Such a stop-start approach would store up bigger costs for the future, and would run counter to the recent Paris Agreement, which called for action to increase.’

UK AMBITION AND PARIS 2015 OUTCOMES The CCC (CCC 2015b) has suggested that the EU 2030 target is less than equivalent to a ‘fair’ EU share of an emissions reduction pathway compatible with achieving a 2 oC limit. The CCC also provide an estimate of what would constitute a fair share of reductions to achieve a 2 oC warming for both the EU and UK and suggest that for the UK this would be 53-80% (this reflects a higher reduction for the UK than the EU wide reduction on the basis of it being one of the wealthiest nations and having had high historic emissions). The CCC have not provided revised UK figure for 2030 compatible with a 1.5 oC goal rather than 2 oC goal.

SCOTLAND CLIMATE CHANGE (SCOTLAND) ACT 2009 In 2009 the Scottish Parliament passed the Climate Change (Scotland) Bill unanimously. The Act comprises of the following six parts: Part 1: Creates the framework for achieving emission cuts and sets an interim target of at least a 42% cut by 2020 and at least 80% cut by 2050. This part also requires the Scottish Ministers to set annual targets in secondary legislation in batches for the period 2010 to 2050. Part 1 also requires the Scottish Government to take advice before they set annual targets (currently provided by the UK Committee on Climate Change). Part 2: Enables Scottish Ministers to establish a Scottish Committee on Climate Change or designate an existing body to provide the advisory functions required. Part 3: Requires Scottish Ministers to provide regular reports to the Scottish Parliament on Scotland’s emissions and progress towards meeting the targets. Part 4: Places duties on Scottish public bodies to contribute towards meeting the emission targets set in or under the Act. 13

Part 5: Makes a range of further provisions including a requirement on Scottish Ministers to set out a climate change adaptation programme, produce a land use strategy and publish plans to promote energy efficiency and renewable heat. Part 6: requires Scottish Ministers to prepare a public engagement strategy and accompany the draft budget proposals as they are laid before Parliament with a report setting out the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the planned spend.

Annual Targets Unlike the 2020 and 2050 targets the annual targets are set as actual numbers i.e. the tonnage by which emissions must be reduced. The annual targets have to be set in batches. Two batches have already been set: 

2010–2022;



2023–2027;

The next batch covering the period 2028-2032 must be set no later than 31 October 2016. The Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 requires that subsequent to each batch of annual targets being set the Scottish Government must lay a draft report detailing the proposals and policies for meeting annual targets before the Scottish Parliament ‘as soon as reasonably practicable’.

Report on Proposals and Policies After setting each batch of annual targets, section 35 of the Act requires Ministers to produce a plan outlining specific proposals and policies (RPP) for meeting those targets, and describing how these proposals and polices contribute to the 2020 and 2050 targets. A ‘policy’ is defined as ‘a course of action which has already been wholly or largely decided upon’. A ‘proposal’ is defined as a ‘suggested course of action, the details of which might change as this course of action is explored further.’ The plan, ‘Low Carbon Scotland: Meeting the Emissions Reduction Targets 2010-2022: The Report on Proposals and Policies’ (Scottish Government 2011), often known as RPP1 was published in 2011. The second iteration of the plan, Low Carbon Scotland: Meeting our Emissions Reduction Targets 2013-2027. The Second Report on Proposals and Policies, often knows as RPP2 was published in June 2013 (Scottish Government 2013). RPP2 is structured to reflect the following key emission sectors:      

Energy Homes and Communities Business, Industry and the Public Sector Transport Waste and Resource Efficiency Rural Land Use

The Scottish Government have stated that they plan to lay the next draft RPP (detailing proposals and policies to meet Scotland’s emission reduction targets to 2032) in the Scottish Parliament ‘towards the end of 2016’ (Scottish Government 2015a). 14

Mandatory reporting Part 4 of the Climate Change (Scotland) Act (the Act) places climate change duties on public bodies. The duties require that, in exercising its functions a public body acts: ‘(a) in the way best calculated to contribute to the delivery of the targets set in or under Part 1 of this Act; (b) in the way best calculated to help deliver any programme laid before the Scottish Parliament under section 53; (c) in a way that it considers is most sustainable.’ The duties came into force on 1 January 2011 and apply to all public bodies, defined with the Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002. The Act also provides for Ministers, by order to 

Impose other climate change duties.



Require reports on compliance with climate change duties.



Designate one or more bodies or persons to monitor compliance with the duties and undertake investigations into a relevant public body’s compliance with the duties.

In November 2014 the Scottish Government announced their intention to make Climate Change Reporting mandatory across the public sector. Following a consultation in 2015 the Scottish Parliament agreed The Climate Change (Duties of Public Bodies: Reporting Requirements) (Scotland) Order 2015. The Order requires specified Scottish public authorities (referred to as ‘listed bodies’) to produce annual reports detailing their compliance with their climate change duties and to provide these to the Scottish Government within 8 months of the end of the financial year.

EMISSION REDUCTIONS TO DATE To date Scotland’s emissions have reduced by 38% since 1990 (Scottish Government 2015b) however progress across sectors varies considerably as reflected in Figure 3. Emission cuts of 30% from energy and 70% from waste contrast with reductions of just 2% from transport and 12% from homes. Cuts in emissions to date have been attributed not only to specific policies (at a Scotland, UK and EU level) but also the economic downturn and the closure of Ravenscraig steel works. Also shown in Figure 3 are the emissions from each sector if all policies and proposals from RPP2 achieve their estimated emission reduction by 2020. All emission sectors are, to varying extents, making progress towards a low carbon Scotland. Policies and proposals in the residential sector have the potential to increase the rate of abatement towards 2020. Transport has made only small reductions since 1990 and will potentially be the largest emitting sector in 2020. Unless additional policies are implemented agriculture emission reductions between 2012 and 2020 will be, at best, about half of those achieved between 1990 and 2012.

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Figure 3: Scotland’s emissions by sector for 1990, 2013 and estimated for 2020.

Whilst on track to hit an interim target of 42% emissions reductions by 2020, Scotland has missed annual targets for the past four years. The Scottish Government attributed missing these targets as follows: 2010: ‘an increase in emissions from residential heating attributable to the extreme cold weather experienced at the start and end of 2010; and revisions to historical data’ (Scottish Government 2013). 2011: ‘revisions to the historic greenhouse gas emissions data, as a result of new data and latest changes in methodology’ (Scottish Government 2013b). 2012: ‘an increase in residential emissions, due to greater space heating of homes, which is associated with cooler temperatures in that year and by changes in the fuel mix for electricity production’ (Scottish Government 2014a). 2013: ‘the impact of successive revisions to the greenhouse gas inventory.’ (Scottish Government 2015c). The Scottish Government have set out in detail the impact of successive revisions to Scotland’s emissions baseline (Scottish Government 2015c). Emissions data for Scotland for 2014, including details of whether Scotland has met the fifth annual climate target are expected to be published in June 2016.

MEETING OUR FUTURE TARGETS Some of the reductions to date have been achieved by focusing on the ‘low hanging fruit’ – changes that are most cost effective or publicly acceptable. Making Scotland’s long term climate goals a reality is likely to involve some more wide-ranging changes to our transport, energy, buildings and land use systems. As an indication of the kind of outcomes that would be required, the CCC (2016) as advisors to the Scottish Government have suggested that scenarios compatible with our climate goals would see: 

An electricity system powered solely by renewables, or generation fitted with carbon capture by 2030. 16



Two-thirds of new cars and vans sold being electric by 2030.



Nearly a fifth of our homes fitted with heat pumps by 2030 (430,000 heat pumps installed), and



16,000 hectares of land planted with trees each year.

Such scenarios would require the equivalent of an 8 fold increase in the amount of energy generated from wind (compared to 2013), a 65 fold increase in the proportion of new vehicles that are sold being electric and a doubling of the rate of tree planting. While ambitious, examples elsewhere in Europe should provide some confidence in achieving such goals. In 2015 nearly 30% of all cars sold in Norway in 2015 were electric (gas2org 2016, in 2014 Austria generated renewable electricity equivalent to 70% of their gross electricity use (Eurostat 2016) and in a number of European countries sales of heat pumps now exceed 100,000 each year (EurObserv’ER 2015).

MULTIPLE BENEFITS Achieving a low carbon Scotland provides opportunities to replicate approaches that have been tried and tested elsewhere and develop new ones in areas where Scotland faces distinct challenges (for example associated with improving the energy efficiency of our many solid wall properties) or has a particular niche (for example maximising Scotland’s significant marine energy potential). There are also significant opportunities to use approaches that offer benefits beyond cutting climate emissions, for example: 

Transforming the energy efficiency of our housing stock offers opportunities to cut fuel poverty and create green jobs across Scotland.



Reducing our reliance on petrol and diesel vehicles can help cut air pollution and the associated threats this poses to public health.



Boosting the amount we walk and cycle could help tackle obesity.



Cutting the amount of meat and dairy in our diets and replacing this with alternatives could help reduce cancer and heart disease.

The SPICe Briefing Good for climate, good for health (Finney, 2015) explores in more detail a number of approaches that provide opportunities to cut emissions and improve health.

CLIMATE BILL PROPOSAL The SNP manifesto 2016 (SNP 2016) makes a commitment to bring forward plans for a new Climate Change Bill: ‘In response to the historic agreement signed at the UN Climate talks in Paris last year we will bring forward a new Climate Change Bill which will strengthen our ambition further and set a new target to reduce emissions by more than 50 per cent by 2020.’ The manifesto also refers to a proposal to change the approach used to count emissions in Scotland. The current approach progress towards achieving Scotland’s emission reduction targets is determined on the basis of something called the Net Scottish Emissions Account 17

(NSEA). The NSEA reflects greenhouse gas emissions from sources in Scotland and the effect of the sale and purchase of carbon units (emission allowances) under the ETS (the Scottish Government have provided more details about the Scottish Government’s approach to counting Scotland’s emissions (Scottish Government 2015b).

ADAPTATION Global temperatures have risen by approximately 1 oC above pre-industrial levels and Scotland is already exposed to a number of impacts associated with climate change and as a result of the legacy of past and current emissions, further impacts are inevitable (Defra 2012). The UK Climate Projections (UKCP09) provides the most comprehensive assessment of future climate from the present to 2100 for the UK. The projections are produced by the Met Office Hadley Centre in collaboration with the UK Climate Impacts Programme (UKCIP). Under Section 56 of the Climate Change Act 2008 the UK Government is required to produce 5yearly assessments of the current and predicted impact of climate change on the United Kingdom. The first Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA) was published in January 2012. This document draws heavily on UKCP09, pulls together evidence and analysis on the threats and opportunities presented by the changing climate up until 2100 and includes an assessment for Scotland. It is projected that Scotland will experience:  Higher temperatures in summer and winter.  Increased winter rainfall.  Decreased summer rainfall.  More heavy rainfall days in summer and winter.  A rise in relative sea level.

Scotland’s Approach to Date Scotland’s Climate Change Adaptation Framework In 2009 the Scottish Government published a Climate Adaptation Framework (Scottish Government 2009). The framework set out set an overarching model for adapting to climate change in Scotland and summaries of climate change adaptation in key sectors. Alongside the framework 12 sector action plans were published relating to agriculture, biodiversity, built environment, business, emergency and rescue services, energy, forestry, health, marine, spatial planning and land use, transport and water. Scotland’s Climate Change Adaptation Programme Part 5, Chapter 1 of the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 sets out the requirement for the Scottish Government to publish an adaptation programme: ‘The Scottish Ministers must lay a programme before the Scottish Parliament. This programme must set out the Scottish Ministers’ objectives in relation to adaptation to climate change, their proposals and policies for meeting those objectives, including the timescales within which the proposals and policies will be introduced and otherwise address the risks identified for Scotland in the Secretary of State’s report. It must also outline arrangements to ensure engagement with stakeholders in delivering the 18

programme, specifically with employers and trade unions and what mechanisms will be used to ensure the public is engaged in meeting the objectives.’ In May 2014 the Scottish Government published Climate Ready Scotland Scottish Climate Change Adaptation Programme (Scottish Government 2014) to address the risks identified in the CCRA. The Programme identifies an overall aim: “to increase the resilience of Scotland’s people, environment and economy to the impacts of a changing climate” and sets out policies and actions under the following three themes: 

Climate Ready Natural Environment;



Climate Ready Buildings and Infrastructure Networks; and



Climate Ready Society.

The programme replaces Scotland’s Climate Change Adaptation Framework. The CCC is due to provide their first assessment of the Scottish Government’s progress in implementing the programme in September 2016.

CLIMATE CHANGE ‘MAINSTREAMING’ IN THE SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT During scrutiny of the Scottish Government’s Draft budget 2012-13 and Spending Review 2011, the Rural Affairs, Climate Change and Environment (RACCE) Committee Scottish Parliament 2013) noted: ‘..the inherent difficulties of one committee attempting to scrutinise actual spend on achieving the Scottish Government’s climate change targets as set out in the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 (“the Act”) due to policies crossing all subject committees’ remits and Cabinet Secretaries’ portfolios.’

Draft Scottish Budget The RACCE committed recommended that all subject committees consider climate change issues when they considered issues within their own Scottish Government portfolio and the Scottish Parliament Finance Committee endorsed this recommendation. Since 2012 the RACCE committee have encouraged all subject committee’s to consider climate change issues as part of their approach to scrutinising the draft Scottish Budget each year. In particular the RACCE committee identified the need for committees to consider how planned spend supports delivery of the targets set out in the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 and Low Carbon Scotland: The Second Report on Proposals and Policies. In their Session 4 Legacy Paper (Scottish Parliament 2016) the RACCE Committee have raised some concerns about how successful this approach has been to date: ‘The failure of some relevant committees in the Parliament to meaningfully engage with climate change issues in the budget process was one of the more disappointing aspects of the session. The Committee does not regret initiating and championing the mainstreaming and hopes that a successor committee continues with it. However, there is clearly work to be done to get the message of the importance of the work across to 19

other committees and members and to stimulate a step-change across the Parliament in the next session.’

Report on Proposals and Policies (RPP2) In 2013 four committees of the Parliament: RACCE; Economy, Energy and Tourism; Infrastructure and Capital Investment; and Local Government and Regeneration, scrutinised the Scottish Government’s Draft Second Report on Proposals and Policies (RPP2). Each committee published its own report to Parliament before a joint-committee debate in the chamber. In their legacy paper (Scottish Parliament 2016) the RACCE Committee highlighted their experience of engaging in cross-committee work on climate change: ‘The Committee’s experience of cross-committee working in the session (mainstreaming of climate issues in the budget aside) was largely a positive one. The best examples of this, seen in the scrutiny of both RPP2 and NPF3, saw four committees working innovatively and constructively together to avoid repetitions and/or duplication of effort and maximising the Parliament’s scrutiny of two very important documents (which would agree the approaches to both tackling climate change and planning respectively). Successor committees should look to collaborate with other committees on a case-bycase basis as there are likely to be times when doing so would be hugely beneficial to the Parliament in terms of delivering beneficial and effective scrutiny.’

CLIMATE JUSTICE In 2012 the Scottish Government launched a climate justice fund. According to the Government (2014c) the fund: ‘aims to address the needs of climate vulnerable people, particularly recognising the disproportionate effect the impact of climate change can have on the poor, and women and children in developing countries.’ Initially £3 million was allocated to support five climate change adaptation projects in Malawi and Zambia (Scottish Government 2012). In 2014 a further £3 million was provided to support water and food related projects in Malawi, Zambia, Tanzania and Rwanda (Scottish Government 2014d) In December 2015 the Scottish Government announced that the fund would be doubled to £12 million (Scottish Government 2015).

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CLIMATE CHANGE SCRUTINY DURING SESSION 4 OF THE SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT Table 1 summarises some of the key climate change issues that have been considered by the Scottish Parliament during Session 4. Issue Climate Change and the draft Scottish Budget 2013-14 Climate Change and the draft Scottish Budget 2014-15 Climate Change and the draft Scottish Budget 2015-16 Climate Change and the draft Scottish Budget 2016-17 Climate Change and the draft Scottish Budget 2015-16 Climate Change and the draft Scottish Budget 2016-17 Climate change and the public sector COP 21 (Paris)and Scottish Government climate policy Climate Change Adaptation Draft Second Report on Proposals and Policies (RPP2) Behaviours Framework Scotland’s Climate Change Targets Draft Second Report on Proposals and Policies (RPP2) Draft Second Report on Proposals and Policies (RPP2) Draft Second Report on Proposals and Policies (RPP2) Climate change and NPF3

Date December 2012

output RACCE – Committee Report

December 2013

RACCE – Committee Report

January 2015

RACCE – Committee Report

January 2016

RACCE – Committee Report

January 2015

ICI – Committee Report

January 2016

ICI – Committee Report

May 2015

RACCE – letter to the Minister

December 2015

RACCE – letter to the Minister

December 2013 March 2013

RACCE – letter to the Minister RACCE – Committee Report

December 2013 November 2014

RACCE – letter to the Minister RACCE – letter to the Minister

March 2013

EET – Committee Report

March 2013

ICI – Committee Report

March 2013

Local Government and Regeneration Committee – Committee Report RACCE – Committee Report

March 2014

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SOURCES Anderson, K. (2015) The Hidden Agenda: How Veiled Techno-Utopias Shore up the Paris Agreement. Available at: http://kevinanderson.info/blog/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/ParisSummary-2015.pdf [Accessed 20 May 2016] Barlow, D. 2015 SPICe Briefing SB 15-63 Paris 2015: UN Climate Negotiations. Available at: http://www.parliament.scot/ResearchBriefingsAndFactsheets/S4/SB_15-63_Paris_2015__UN_Climate_Negotiations.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] CCC. 2015a Domestic implications of the “Paris Agreement” to combat climate change. Available at: https://www.theccc.org.uk/2015/12/14/domestic-implications-of-the-parisagreement-to-combat-climate-change/ [Accessed 24 May 2016] CCC. 2015b The Fifth Carbon Budget – the next step towards a low-carbon economy. Available at: https://documents.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Committee-onClimate-Change-Fifth-Carbon-Budget-Report.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] CCC. 2016 Scottish emissions targets 2028-2032. The high ambition pathway towards a low carbon economy. Available at: https://documents.theccc.org.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2016/03/Scottish-Emissions-Targets-2028-2032.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] Climate Action Tracker. 2015 How close are INDCs to 2oC and 1.5oC pathways. Climate Analytics, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impacts Research, Ecofys, New Climate Institute. Available at http://climateanalytics.org/files/cat_global_temperature_update_october_2015.pdf [Accessed May 23 2016] Defra. 2012 UK Climate Change Risk Assessment 2012. Available at: http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Default.aspx?Module=More&Location=None&ProjectID=15747 [Accessed 24 May 2016] European Commission. 2011 Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52011DC0112&from=EN [Accessed 24 May 2016] EurObserv’ER. 2015 Heat pumps barometer 2015. Available at: http://www.eurobserv-er.org/ [Accessed 24 May 2016] Eurostat. 2015 Energy from renewable sources. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Energy_from_renewable_sources [Accessed 24 May 2016] Finney, D. 2015 SPICe Briefing SB 15-40 Good for climate, good for health. Available at: http://www.parliament.scot/ResearchBriefingsAndFactsheets/S4/SB_1540_Good_for_climate_good_for_health.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] Gas2org. 2016 Electric car sales surge in Norway during 2015. Available at: http://gas2.org/2016/01/21/electric-car-sales-surge-in-norway-during-2015/ [Accessed 24 may 2016]

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IPCC. 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report – Glossary of terms. Available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/glossary/tar-ipcc-terms-en.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] IPCC. 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Available at: https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/tssts-5-2.html [Accessed 24 May 2016] IPCC. 2013a Climate Change 2013 The Physical Science Basis. IPCC Working Group I contribution to AR5. Available at: http://www.climatechange2013.org/ [Accessed 24 May 2016] IPCC. 2013b Climate Change 2013 The Physical Science Basis. IPCC Working Group I contribution to AR5. Summary for Policymakers. Available at: http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/report/WG1AR5_SPM_FINAL.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2014]. IPCC 2014a Climate Change 2014. Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. IPCC Working Group II contribution to AR5. Available at: http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/ [Accessed 24 May 2014] IPCC 2014b Climate Change 2014. Mitigation of Climate Change. IPCC Working Group III contribution to AR5. Available at: http://www.mitigation2014.org/ [Accessed 24 May 2014] IPCC 2014c Climate Change 2014. IPCC Fifth Assessment Report - Synthesis Report. Available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessmentreport/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_All_Topics.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] Met Office. (2012) Emissions Pathways to Limit Climate Change. Available at: http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/media/pdf/h/4/avoid6_flyer.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] Met Office. (2015) Global Climate in Context as the World Approaches 1 oC above preindustrial for the first time. Available at: http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/news/2015/global-average-temperature-2015 [Accessed 24 May 2016] New Climate Institute. (2015) What the Paris Agreement Means for Global Climate Change Mitigation. Available at: http://newclimate.org/2015/12/14/what-the-paris-agreement-means-forglobal-climate-change-mitigation/ [Accessed 24 May 2016] UNFCCC. 2015 Intended Nationally Determined Contribution of the EU and its Member States. Available at: http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Latvia/1/LV-03-06EU%20INDC.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] Sandbag. 2013 Structural Options to Strengthen the EU Emissions Trading System Consultation Response. Available at: https://sandbag.org.uk/site_media/pdfs/reports/Sandbag_consultation_response_on_structural_ reforms_v.2.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] Sandbag. 2016 EU Must Walk the Talk on Climate Ambition and Paris. Available at: https://sandbag.org.uk/blog/2016/apr/21/walk-talk-coalition-higher-ambition-calls-europe-b/ [Accessed 24 May 2016]

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Scottish Government. 2011 Low Carbon Scotland: Meeting the Emissions Reduction Targets 2010-2022: The Report on Proposals and Policies. Available at: http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2011/03/21114235/0 [Accessed 24 May 2016] Scottish Government. 2012 Scottish Government news release – First Climate Justice funding. Available at: http://wayback.archiveit.org/3011/20130201185500/http:/www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2012/11/climatejustice28112012 [Accessed 24 May 2016] Scottish Government. 2013a Low Carbon Scotland: Meeting our Emissions Reduction Targets 2013-2027. The Second Report on Proposals and Policies. Available at: http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2013/06/6387 Accessed 24 may 2016] Scottish Government. 2013b Letter from the Minister for Environment and Climate Change. June 2013. Available at: http://www.parliament.scot/S4_RuralAffairsClimateChangeandEnvironmentCommittee/General %20Documents/2013.06.07__Letter_from_the_Minister_on_the_publication_of_Scottish_Greenhouse_gas_emissions_19902011.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] Scottish Government. 2014a The Scottish Greenhouse Gas Emissions Annual Target Report 2012. Available at: http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2014/10/5292 [Accessed 24 May 2016] Scottish Government. 2014b Climate Ready Scotland: Scottish Climate Change Adaptation Programme. Available at: http://www.gov.scot/Resource/0045/00451392.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] Scottish Government. 2014c Scottish Climate Justice Fund Round 2 – Call for Applications. Available at: http://www.gov.scot/Resource/0044/00448275.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] Scottish Government. 2014d news release – African climate justice support. Available at: http://news.scotland.gov.uk/News/African-climate-justice-support-1108.aspx [Accessed 24 May 2016] Scottish Government. 2015a Letter from the Minister for Environment, Climate Change and Land Reform 26 November 2015. Available at: http://www.parliament.scot/S4_RuralAffairsClimateChangeandEnvironmentCommittee/General %20Documents/20151126_Minister_on_COP_21_Paris_Meeting_WEB.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] Scottish Government. 2015b Scottish Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2013. Available at: http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2015/06/1939 [Accessed 24 May 2016] Scottish Government. 2015c Scottish Greenhouse Gas Emissions Annual Target 2013. Available at: http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2015/10/8032 [Accessed 24 May 2016] Scottish Government. 2015d news release – Cash boost for climate justice. Available at: http://scottishgovernment.presscentre.com/News/Cash-boost-for-climate-justice-2015.aspx [Accessed 24 May 2016] Scottish Parliament. 2013 Letter from the Rural Affairs, Climate Change and Environment Committee on mainstreaming climate change scrutiny of the Scottish Government’s draft 24

budget. Available at: http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/S4_RuralAffairsClimateChangeandEnvironmentCommittee/Ge neral%20Documents/Climate_change_budget_mainstreaming.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] Scottish Parliament. 2016 Rural Affairs, Climate Change and Environment Committee – Legacy Report. Session 4. Available at: http://www.parliament.scot/S4_RuralAffairsClimateChangeandEnvironmentCommittee/Reports/ RACCES042016R06.pdf [Accessed 24 may 2016] Sindico, F. (2015) Is the Paris Agreement Really Legally Binding? Available at: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/paris-agreement-really-legally-binding-francesco-sindico [Accessed 24 May 2016] SNP. 2016 Manifesto 2016. Available at: http://www.snp.org/manifesto [Accessed 24 May 2016] United Nations. (1992) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] UNFCCC. (2014) UNFCCC Standing Committee on Finance. 2014 Biannual Assessment and Overview of Climate Finance Flows Report. Available at: https://unfccc.int/files/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/standing_committee/appli cation/pdf/2014_biennial_assessment_and_overview_of_climate_finance_flows_report_web.pdf [Accessed 24 May 2016] UNFCCC. (2015a) Synthesis Report on the Aggregate Effect of the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions. Available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/07.pdf [Accessed 23 May 2016]

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RELATED BRIEFINGS SB 16-08 Paris 2015 Climate Summit: Outcomes and Implications for Scotland SB 15-63 Paris 2015: UN Climate Negotiations SB 14-66 Climate Change: The Latest United Nations Science SB 14-78 Scotland’s Climate Emissions Targets and Trends: November 2014 SB 13-07 RPP2 and Scotland’s Climate Change Targets

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