Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential ...

Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential Learning in Higher Education Author(s): Alice Y. Kolb and David A. Kolb Source: Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Jun., 2005), pp. 193-212 Published by: Academy of Management Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40214287 . Accessed: 26/03/2014 12:01 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

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LearningStyles and Learning Spaces: EnhancingExperiential Learningin HigherEducation ALICE Y. KOLB Experience-BasedLearningSystems DAVID A. KOLB Case WesternReserveUniversity Drawingon thefoundationaltheoriesofJohnDewey and KurtLewin,we examine recent developmentsin theoryand researchon experientiallearningand explorehow thiswork can enhance experientiallearningin highereducation.We introducetheconceptof forunderstandingtheinterfacebetweenstudentlearning learningspace as a framework learningenvironmentWe illustratethe use of thelearning stylesand theinstitutional in threecase studiesoflongitudinalinstitutional developmentFinally, space framework we presentprinciplesforthe enhancementofexperientiallearningin highereducation the educational and suggesthow experientiallearningcan be applied throughout environment developmentprograms,includinglongitudinaloutcome by institutional assessment curriculumdevelopmentstudentdevelopmentand facultydevelopment tools and techniquesto providelearnerswithexperiencesfromwhichtheycan learn. Othershave used the termto describe learningthatis a mindless recording of experience. Yet experiential learning is above all a philosophyof education based on what Dewey (1938)called a "theoryof experience."He argued thatwhile traditionaleducation had littleneed fortheorysince practice thenew experiential was determinedby tradition, approach to education needed a sound theoryof experienceto guide its conduct.In this essay we examine the theoryofexperientiallearning(Kolb, 1984) and related research to explore how this knowledge can be used to enhance learning in highereducation. We begin witha briefsummaryof experiential learningtheory(ELT) and an overviewof current researchbased on the theory.This is followedby theintroduction oftwonew developmentsin ELT,a in theassessmentofexperientiallearnrefinement (LSI) ing stylesusing the LearningStyleInventory and the introductionof the concept of learning forunderstandingtheinterspace as a framework face betweenstudentlearningstylesand theeducational learning environmentbased on Lewin's concept of life space. Use of the learning space framework is illustratedin case studiesoflongitu-

a theoryofex"(Thereis a) need offorming that education in order may be inperience the basis of conducted upon telligently "-John Dewey experience. so practicalas a goodtheory" "Thereis nothing - KurtLewin to improvehighereducation,includRecentefforts from the National Research Council ing reports Brown,& Cocking2000),the American (Bransford, PsychologicalAssociation(1997),and a numberof otherscholars(Baxter-Magolda,1999;Boyatzis,Cowen,& Kolb 1995;Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs2002; and Associates, King,2003;Light,2001;Mentkowski 2000; Zull 2002) have focused on improvingthe learningprocessin educationthroughtheapplication of research fromwhat has been called "the new science oflearning"(Branford, Brown,& Cockis focused of this research stream One 2000). ing, on the conceptof experientiallearning.Experiential learning is oftenmisunderstoodas a set of We thankJamesBailey,Sandy Bell, RichardBoyatzis,David Justice,D. ChristopherKayes, Tony Lingham,Charalampos RonaldSims,BarrySheckley,YoMainemelis,VerenaMurphy, shi Yamazaki,and JamesZull fortheirhelpfulfeedbackon this manuscript. 193


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periencesintoexistingconceptsand accommodatingexistingconceptstonewexperience. is theprocessofcreating 6.Learning knowledge. ELT proposesa constructivist theoryof learning wherebysocial knowledgeis created and recreatedin thepersonalknowledgeofthelearner. model tothe"transmission" Thisstandsincontrast on whichmuchcurrenteducationalpracticeis fixedideas are transmitbased,wherepreexisting tedtothelearner. ELT defineslearningas "theprocesswhereby thetransformation knowledgeis createdthrough thecombiofexperience. Knowledgeresultsfrom nationofgraspingand transforming experience" twodialec(Kolb,1984:41).TheELTmodelportrays EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY of modes related experience grasping tically ConcreteExperience drawson theworkof (CE) and Abstract ConceptuExperiential learningtheory related and two alization who 20th scholars (AC) dialectically prominent century gave experi- Reflective Obence a centralrole in theirtheoriesof human modesoftransforming experience Active and servation and (AE). (RO) John Experimentation learning Dewey, developmentnotably KurtLewin,JeanPiaget,WilliamJames, CarlJung, Experiential learningis a processofconstructing - todevelopa that PauloFreire, CarlRogersand others knowledge involvesa creativetensionamong toconholisticmodeloftheexperiential learningprocess thefourlearningmodesthatis responsive as an and a multilinear model of adult development textualdemands.Thisprocessis portrayed is builton sixpropositions idealized learningcycle or spiral where the (Kolb,1984).Thetheory relearner"touchesall thebases"- experiencing, thatare sharedbythesescholars. in a recursive and 1.Learning is bestconceivedas a process,notin proacting thinking, flecting, To improve termsofoutcomes. learningin higher cess thatis responsiveto the learningsituation orconcrete and whatis beinglearned.Immediate focusshouldbe on engagtheprimary education, and reobservations for the basis are their enhances students in a that best experiences ing process and assimilated are reflections These flections. on the feedback a that includes learning process distilledintoabstractconceptsfromwhichnew As Dewey effectiveness of theirlearningefforts. foractioncan be drawn.Theseimplimustbe conceivedas a connotes,"[E]ducation implications be can cations . . . the reconstruction of activelytestedand serveas guides protinuing experience: In TheArtofChangin creatingnewexperiences. cess and goal ofeducationare one and thesame the Brain: the 1897: 79). byExploring Teaching Enriching ing thing"(Dewey and a of is best Zull, 2. All learningis relearning. James biologist Biology Learning, Learning Centerfor ofCWRU'sUniversity director facilitated founding by a processthatdrawsout the students'beliefsand ideas abouta topicso thatthey Innovationin Teachingand Education(UCITE), sees a link betweenELT and neurosciencerewithnew, can be examined, tested,and integrated thatthisprocessofexperiential ideas. morerefined search,suggesting of conflicts learningis relatedtotheprocessofbrainfunction3. Learningrequiresthe resolution betweendialecticallyopposedmodesofadaptaing(as shownin Fig. 1). and distionto the world.Conflict, differences, thatconillustrates Putintowords,thefigure are whatdrivethelearningprocess.In agreement thesensory creteexperiencescomethrough theprocessoflearningone is calledupontomove involvestheinobservation reflective backand forth betweenopposingmodesofrefleccortex, newabthe at cortex back, tionand actionand feelingand thinking. creating tegrative stractconceptsoccursin thefrontal 4. Learningis a holisticprocessofadaptationto integrathe involves and active tive theworld.Notjusttheresultofcognition, cortex, testing learning the In other brain. motor total of the words, involvestheintegrated cycle learning perfunctioning of the brain(Zull arises fromthe structure and behaving. son- thinking, feeling, perceiving, 2002:18-19). transactions 5. Learningresultsfromsynergetic In Pibetweenthe personand the environment. Theconceptoflearningstyledescribesindividoccurs equilibration through aget'sterms, learning in learningbased on thelearner's ual differences newexofthedialecticprocessesofassimilating

dinal institutional in threediverse development in the ClevelandInstieducation, programs higher tuteofArt,theCase WesternReserveUniversity and the Case Weatherundergraduate program, head School of ManagementMBAprogram.Finally,we presentprinciplesfortheenhancement ofexperiential learningin highereducationand how suggest learningcan be applied experiential the environment educational by instithroughout include tutional that longidevelopment programs develtudinaloutcomeassessment,curriculum opment, student development,and faculty development.


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Active

Premotor/-^^ ^T y^ *\ ^^ V and / 1 Sensory W ^ j^XFrontal J and Concrete motor/ / J ^J^^^. Abstract / ^/ integrateexperience ^^f ^postsensory^X^^" cortex ( hypotheses~"^^\ J*^' ) ) I

^^^^^^^^

Reflective y^^^^ observation

FIGURE 1 The ExperientialLearningCycle and Regions ofthe Cerebral Cortex.Note.Reprintedwithpermission from(Zull 2002). preferenceforemployingdifferent phases of the of Because our learning cycle. hereditaryequipment,our particularlife experiences,and the demands of our presentenvironment, we develop a of the fourlearning preferred way choosingamong modes.We resolvetheconflictbetweenbeing concreteor abstractand between being active or reflectivein patterned,characteristicways. ELTas definedbyKolbpositsthatlearningis the major determinantof human development,and how individuals learn shapes the course of their personal development.His previousresearchhas shownthatlearningstylesare influencedby personality type,educational specialization, career choice,and currentjob role and tasks (Kolb,1984). Yamazaki (2002,2003)has recentlyidentifiedcultural influencesas well. The ELT developmental model (Kolb, 1984)definesthreestages: (1) acquisition,frombirthto adolescence, wherebasic abilities and cognitivestructuresdevelop; (2) specialization,fromformalschooling throughthe early work and personal experiences of adulthood, where social, educational, and organizational socialization forcesshape the developmentof a particular,specialized learningstyle;and (3) integration in midcareerand later life, where nondominantmodesoflearningare expressedin work and personal life. Development throughthese stages is characterizedby increasingcomplexity and relativismin adapting to the world and by increased integrationof the dialectic conflictsbetweenAC and CE and AE and RO. Developmentis conceivedas multilinear, based on an individual's

particularlearning style and life path- developof RO mentof CE increases affectivecomplexity, of AC increases increases perceptualcomplexity, symboliccomplexity,and of AE increases behavioral complexity. RESEARCH ON EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY

ELT was developed followingLewin's plan forthe creationof scientificknowledgeby conceptualizing phenomena throughformal,explicit,testable theory.In Lewin's approach,"beforea systemcan be fullyusefultheconceptsin ithave tobe defined ofboththe in a way that(1) permitsthe treatment of and phenomqualitative quantitativeaspects ena in a single system,(2) adequately represents the conditional-genetic(or causal) attributesof phenomena,(3) facilitatesthemeasurement(oropand (4) alofthese attributes, erationaldefinition) lows both generalizationto universal laws and concretetreatmentof the individual case" (Cartwright,1951:ix). A theorydeveloped by this proforstimulating cess can be a powerfulinstrument and focusingscholarlyresearchconversation. Since its firststatementin 1971(Kolb,1971;Kolb, Rubin,& Mclntyre,1971),therehave been many studies using ELT to advance thetheoryand practice ofexperientiallearning.The July2005update of the ExperientialLearningTheoryBibliography (Kolb & Kolb,2005)includes 1876entries.Because ELT is a holistictheoryof learningthatidentifies learning style differencesamong differentaca-


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to see that demicspecialties,it is notsurprising ELTresearchis highlyinterdisciplinary, addressand in educational issues many ing learning fields.Ananalysisofthe 1004entriesin the 1999 & Mainemelis, (Kolb,Boyatzis, 2001) bibliography shows207studiesin management, 430in educascience,101inpsychology, tion,104ininformation 22inaccounting and 72inmedicine, 63innursing, 5 in law.About55%ofthisresearchhas appeared inrefereed 20%indoctoraldisserjournalarticles, in book and 15% books and 10% tations, chapters, research and in conference proceedings, reports, othervenues. reviewsof Therehave beentwocomprehensive and one ELT one the literature, qualitative quantireviewedthe tative.In 1991Hickcoxextensively anatheoretical originsofELT and qualitatively lyzed81studiesthatfocusedon theapplicationof theELTmodelas wellas on theapplicationofthe and busiconceptoflearningstylein accounting medicalproness education, helpingprofessions, educationand teacheredfessions, postsecondary ucation.She concludedthatoverall61.7%of the studiessupported ELT,16.1%showedmixedsupport,and 22.2%did notsupportELT.In 1994Iliff LSI of101quantitative a meta-analysis conducted and 624arti275dissertations studiesculledfrom and quanticles thatwerequalitative, theoretical, tativestudiesofELTand theKolbLearningStyle (LSI; Kolb 1971,1985,1999a;see also Inventory Hickox,1991).Ilifffoundthat49 studiesshowed strongsupportfortheLSI,40 showedmixedsupAbouthalf and 12studiesshowednosupport. port, data on the sufficient ofthe 101studiesreported sizes bywayofmetaLSI scales tocomputeeffect correlations that analysis.Moststudiesreported fellin the.2 to .5 rangefortheLSI scales. In conofthese clusionIliff suggestedthatthemagnitude is notsufficient tomeetstandardsofprestatistics whilenotingthattheLSI was not dictivevalidity, testlike tobe a predictive intended psychological develIQ, GRE,or GMAT.The LSI was originally exerciseand a means oped as a self-assessment validationofELT.Judged forconstruct bythestanELT has been widely dardsofconstruct validity, forlearningcenacceptedas a usefulframework terededucationalinnovation, includinginstrucand lifetionaldesign,curriculum development, long learning. Academic field and job studiesviewedas a wholealso show classification withtheELTstrucofresultsconsistent a pattern tureofknowledge theory. Mostofthedebateand critiquein theELT/LSI literature has centeredon thepsychometric propertiesoftheLSI. Resultsfromthisresearchhave beenofgreatvalue in revisingtheLSI in 1985and

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again in 1999.Recentcritiquehas been morefocusedonthetheory thantheinstrument examining the intellectualoriginsand underlying assumptionsofELTfromwhatmightbe called a critical wherethe theoryis seen as theoryperspective, and technological individualistic, cognitivist, (e.g., Vince,1998;Holman,Pavlica,& Thorpe,1997;Hopkins,1993).Kayes (2002)has reviewedtheseand othercriticsofELTand offered his owncritiqueof the critics.He suggeststhatcriticshave overlookedtheroleofVygotsky's social-constructivist in theELTtheory ofdevelopment learningtheory and the role of personalknowledgeand social knowledgein experiential learning.He proposes an extension ofELTbased onLacan'spoststructuralistanalysisthatelaboratesthefracture between personaland social knowledgeand therolethat languageplaysin shapingexperience. LEARNING STYLE ASSESSMENT

Muchoftheresearchon ELT has focusedon the conceptoflearningstyleusingtheLearningStyle (LSI)toassess individuallearningstyles Inventory see also Hickox, (Kolb1971,1999a,b; 1991). Although individualstestedon theLSI showmanydifferent patternsofscores,previousresearchwiththeinstrument has identified fourlearningstylesthat are associatedwithdifferent approachestolearnand acing:diverging, assimilating, converging, The following ofthefour commodating. summary basic learningstylesis based on bothresearch and clinicalobservation of thesepatternsofLSI scores(Kolb,1984,1999a). An individualwithdiverging stylehas CE and RO as dominantlearningabilities.People with thislearningstyleare best at viewingconcrete from situations manydifferent pointsofview.The becausea personwith styleis labeled"diverging" itperforms betterin situations thatcall forgenerationofideas,suchas a "brainstorming" session. Peoplewitha diverging learningstylehavebroad culturalinterests and like to gatherinformation. inpeople,tendtobe imaginaTheyare interested tiveand emotional, have broadculturalinterests, and tendtospecializein thearts.In formal learningsituations, peoplewiththediverging styleprefertoworkin groups,tolistenwithan openmind, and toreceivepersonalized feedback. Anindividualwithan assimilating stylehas AC and RO as dominantlearningabilities.People withthislearningstyleare bestat understanding a wide rangeof information and puttingit into Individualswithan assimiconcise,logicalform. latingstyleare less focusedon peopleand more in ideas and abstractconcepts.Generinterested


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ally, people withthis stylefindit moreimportant thata theoryhave logical soundness than practical value. The assimilatinglearningstyleis important foreffectivenessin information and science careers.In formallearningsituations,people with thisstylepreferreadings,lectures,exploringanalytical models, and having time to thinkthings through. An individual witha convergingstyle has AC and AE as dominantlearningabilities.People with this learning style are best at findingpractical uses forideas and theories.Theyhave the ability to solve problemsand make decisions based on findingsolutionstoquestionsorproblems.Individuals with a converginglearning style preferto deal withtechnicaltasksand problemsratherthan withsocial and interpersonalissues. These learning skills are importantforeffectivenessin specialist and technologycareers.In formallearning situations,people withthis stylepreferto experimentwithnew ideas, simulations,laboratoryassignments,and practicalapplications. An individualwithan accommodatingstylehas CE and AE as dominantlearningabilities. People withthis learningstylehave the abilityto learn fromprimarily"hands-on"experience.Theyenjoy carryingout plans and involvingthemselves in new and challengingexperiences.Theirtendency may be to act on "gut" feelings ratherthan on logical analysis. In solvingproblems,individuals withan accommodatinglearningstylerelymore than on their heavily on people forinformation own technicalanalysis. This learningstyleis imin action-oriented careers portantforeffectiveness such as marketingor sales. In formallearningsituations,people withthe accommodatinglearning stylepreferto workwithothersto get assignments done,to set goals, to do fieldwork,and to testout different approaches to completinga project. Recenttheoreticaland empiricalworkis showing thatthe originalfourlearningstyles- assimilating, converging,accommodating,and diverging- can be expanded toshowninedistinctstyles. David Hunt and his associates (Abby,Hunt, & Weiser,1985;Hunt1987)identifiedfouradditional learning styles,which they identifiedas Northerner,Easterner,Southerner,and Westerner.The following descriptions of these styles include Hunt'sanalysis, which emphasizes the impactof thestyle'sweakest learningmode on the learner's learningprocess. The Northerner emphasizes feeling (CE) while balancing acting (AE) and reflecting(RO). The learningstrengthsof this styleare a capacity for deep involvementwhile being comfortablein the outerworldofactionand theinnerworldofreflec-

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tion."Thispersonhas difficulty in conceptualizing or making meaning of experience;consequently, the cycle runs fromfeelings to reflection(which remains unconsolidated) to action. The consequence ofthisNortherly patternis thatthe flowis discontinuous and the actions are poorly organized since theyare not informedby the foundation ofAC meaning"(Hunt,1987:155). The Easterneremphasizes reflecting(RO) while balancing feeling (CE) and thinking(AC). The learningstrengthsof this styleare a capacity for deep reflectioninformedby the abilityto be both feelingorientedand conceptual."Personswithan Easterlypatternhave troubleputtingplans into action. Consequently,theyspend muchtimeburied in thought.Because the action is shortcircuited, their thoughtsare about their feelings ratherthan about theirdirectactions; this imbalanced cycle lacks the rejuvenationprovided by actions" (Hunt,1987:155). The Southerneremphasizes thinking(AC) while balancing acting (AE) and reflecting(RO). The learning strengthsof this styleare highlydeveloped conceptualand analyticcapabilities thatare informedboth by reflectionand action. "Persons witha Southerlypatternare notin touchwiththeir feelings. They reflecton the mechanics of their actionswithoutbenefitofemotionalfeedback.The reflectionmay lead to reformulation of concepts but the revisionis mechanical and sterile"(Hunt, 1987:155). The Westerneremphasizes acting (AE) while balancing feeling (CE) and thinking(AC). The learningstrengthsof this style are highlydeveloped action skills thatare informedbothby conceptual analysis and intuitiveexperience."In this pattern,the Westernergoes directlyfromfeelings to conceptualizingwithoutsortingouttheconcrete experience. Consequently,the initial conceptual framework is likelyto be unclear,withlittlepossito correct it throughreflection"(Hunt,1987: bility 155). A "Balancing"learningstylehas been identified by Mainemelis,Boyatzis,and Kolb (2002)thatintegratesAC and CE and AE and RO. In thisstudywe employed the Learning Style Inventory(Kolb 1999a),the AdaptiveStyleInventory (ASI,Boyatzis & Kolb 1993),and the LearningSkills Profile(LSP, Boyatzis& Kolb, 1991,1995,1997)to test a fundamentalELT hypothesis:The morebalanced people are in theirlearning orientationon the LSI, the on theASI. greaterwill be theiradaptive flexibility To assess a balanced LSI profile,we used two indicatorsof a balanced learning profile,using absolute LSI scores on the Abstract/Concrete and Active/Reflective dimensions. The results sup-



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portedourhypotheses, showingthatpeople with balancedlearningprofilesin bothdimensionsof theLSI are moreadoptivelyflexiblelearnersas measuredbytheASI.Therelationship was stronfor the Abstract/Conthe balanced on ger profile cretedimension dimenthantheActive/Reflective sion.Otherresultsshowedthatindividualswith level specializedLSIlearningstyleshavea greater of skill development in the commensurate skill some of the The also LSP. quadrant study produced results.Forexample,althoughwe preunexpected dictedthatspecializedlearningstyleswouldshow less adaptiveflexibility on the ASI, the results showedthatthisis truefortheabstractlearning stylesbutnotfortheconcrete styles. Theninelearningstylesoutlinedabove can be definedbyplacingthemonthelearningstyletype grid(Kolb1999a:6).Insteadofdividingthegridat the50thpercentiles oftheLSI normative distributionsforAC-CE and AE-RO,thenine stylesare definedby dividingthe two normative distributionsintothirds.(On the AE-ROdimensionthe activeregionsare definedby raw scores ^ 12, whilethe reflective regionsare definedby raw scores< -1. On theAC-CE dimensiontheconcreteregionsare definedby< - 1and theabstract regionsby> 12.(See Fig 2.)

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of Thisresearchthatincreasesthe"resolution" fourtoninepixels thelearningstyletypegridfrom of misconception mayhelptodeal witha common to treat ELTlearningstyles;thatis, thetendency entities thefourlearningstylesas fourcategorical ratherthancontinuouspositionson the dimensionsofAC-CEandAE-RO.Gould(2003)inhislast aboutthebias in science bookwritesextensively Althatarises fromsuch dichotomous thinking. emlimit format of the LSI the may though simple thereare many theoretically, piricalidentification; these two diidentifiable along learningstyles identiotherdimensions mensions(nottomention Elsewhere fiedby otherlearningstyletheories). toaddressthisbias: we have attempted Whenit is used in the simple,straightfortheLSIusually ward,andopenwayintended, and self-examination an provides interesting discussionthatrecognizesthe uniqueness, in individualapand variability complexity The to proaches learning. dangerlies in the reification oflearningstylesintofixedtraits, suchthatlearningstylesbecomestereotypes used topigeonholeindividualsand theirbehavior(Kolb,1981:290-291).

CONCRETE EXPERIENCE NW

ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION

NE

N

Feeling-Acting

Feeling Acting-Reflecting

Accommodating

Northerner

Zm

Fefung

Feeling-Reflecting Diverging

RefiLg

REFLECTIVE

+ Reflecting Feeling-Thinking OBSERVATION Feelmg-Thinking Acting Westerner

Thinking Balancing

Easterner

S

SW Thinking-Acting Converging

SE

Thinking-Reflecting Thinking Acting-Reflecting Southerner

Assimilating

ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION FIGURE2 The Nine-RegionLearningStyleTypeGrid


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Is learningstylea fixedtraitor dynamicstate? ELT clearly defines learning style as a dynamic statearisingfroman individual'spreferential resolutionof the dual dialectics of experiencing/conceptualizingand acting/reflecting. The stabilityand enduranceofthese states in individuals comes not solely fromfixed geofhumanbeneticqualities orcharacteristics for that does it come from nor, matter, ings: the stable fixed demands of environmental circumstances.Rather,stable and enduring patternsof human individualityarise from consistentpatternsof transactionbetween ... the individualand his or herenvironment The way we process the possibilitiesofeach new emergingeventdeterminesthe range of choices and decisions we see. The choices and decisions we make to some extentdetermine the events we live through,and these events influenceour futurechoices. Thus, people create themselvesthroughthe choice of actual occasions they live through(Kolb 1984:63-64). Nonetheless,in practice and research there is a markedtendencyto treatlearningstyleas a fixed personalitytrait (e.g., Garner,2000). Individuals oftenreferto themselves and others as though learningstylewas a fixedcharacteristic:"I have trouble making decisions because I am a diverger.""He likes to workalone because he is an assimilator."To emphasize the dynamicnatureof learning style,the latest version of the LSI has changed the stylenames fromdivergerto diverging,and so on. LEARNING SPACE

the complex,dynamicnature To elaborate further of learningstyleand its formation throughtranswe actions between the person and environment introducethe conceptof learningspace. The conceptoflearningspace builds on KurtLewin'sfield theoryand his concept of life space. For Lewin, are interdependent bothperson and environment a Lewin translated intoa mathvariables, concept ematical formula,B = f(p,e)where behavior is a As Marrow functionof person and environment. life is the total "the psychological space puts it, whichthepersonexperiencessubjecenvironment tively"(1969:35).Lifespace includesall factswhich have existenceforthe person and excludes those which do not. It embraces needs, goals, unconscious influences,memories,beliefs,events of a political,economic,and social nature,and any-

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thingelse thatmighthave directeffecton behavior.The various factorsin a given lifespace are to some degree interdependent, and Lewin strongly maintainsthatonly the dynamicconceptsof tension and forcecan deal withthese sets ofinterdependentfacts.This is what led himto definepsychological needs as tension systems and their as vectorstodenotemotopologicalrepresentation tion.Lewin postulatedthatthe particularorganizationofa person'slifespace was determinedbya fieldof forces- both internalneeds and external demands- thatpositionedthe individualin a life space composed of different regions.Using maplike representation,the life space could be depicted topologically.Life spaces can vary in a numberofdimensions,includingextension,differand level of conflict.Lewin entiation,integration, introduceda numberofconceptsforanalysis ofthe lifespace and a person'srelationshipto itthatare applicable to the studyoflearningspaces, including position, region, locomotion,equilibriumof forces,positiveand negative valence, barriersin the personand the world,conflict, and goal. Three othertheoreticalframeworksinformthe ELT conceptof learningspace. UrieBronfrenbrenner's (1977,1979)work on the ecology of human developmenthas made significantsociological contributions to Lewin's life space concept.Bronfrenbrenner definesthe ecologyoflearning/developmentspaces as a topologicallynested arrangementofstructures, each containedwithinthenext. The learner'simmediatesetting,such as a course or classroom, is called the microsystem, while otherconcurrent in the life such settings person's as othercourses,thedorm,orfamilyare referred to as the mesosystem.The exosysfemencompasses the formaland informalsocial structuresthatinfluencetheperson'simmediateenvironment, such as institutionalpolicies and proceduresand camrefersto the pus culture.Finally,themacrosystem institutional and values of overarching patterns the wider culture,such as the culturalvalues favoringabstract knowledgeover practical knowledge, thatinfluenceactorsin theperson'simmediate microsystemand mesosystem.This theory provides a frameworkforanalysis of the social systemfactorsthatinfluencelearners'experience oftheirlearningspaces. Anotherimportantcontribution to the learning is situated space concept learningtheory(Lave & Like situated ELT, Wenger 1991). learning theory draws on Vygot sky's(1978)activitytheoryofsocial cognitionfora conceptionofsocial knowledgethat conceivesoflearningas a transactionbetweenthe Situationsin person and the social environment. situated learning theorysuch as life space and


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learningspace are notnecessarilyphysicalplaces but constructsof the person's experience in the social environment. These situationsare embedded in communitiesofpracticethathave a history, norms,tools,and traditionsofpractice.Knowledge resides notin theindividual'shead but in communities of practice.Learning is thus a process of becominga memberof a communityof practice throughlegitimateperipheralparticipation(e.g., apprenticeship).Situatedlearningtheoryenriches the learningspace conceptby remindingus that learningspaces extendbeyondtheteacherand the classroom.Theyinclude socializationintoa wider of practicethatinvolvesmembership, community fromnoviceto exformation, transitioning identity and experience in the pert throughmentorship, activitiesof the practice,as well as the reproducofpractice tionand developmentofthecommunity itselfas newcomersreplace old-timers. Finally,in theirtheoryof knowledge creation, Nonaka and Konno (1998)introducethe Japanese conceptof ba, a "contextthat harborsmeaning," whichis a shared space thatis the foundationfor knowledgecreation."Knowledgeis embedded in ba, where it is then acquired throughone's own on theexperiencesofothexperienceorreflections ers" (Nonaka & Konno, 1998:40). Knowledge embedded inba is tacitand can onlybe made explicit throughsharingof feelings,thoughts,and experiences of persons in the space. For this to happen theba space requiresthatindividualsremovebarriersbetweenone anotherin a climatethatemphasizes "care,love,trust,and commitment." Learning spaces similarlyrequire normsof psychological safety,serious purpose, and respect to promote learning. In ELTtheexperientiallearningspace is defined and repellingforces(positiveand bytheattracting negative valences) of the two poles of the dual and experiencing/ dialectics of action/reflection a two-dimensional map conceptualizing,creating of the regionsof the learningspace. Individuals' learningstyle positionsthemin one of these regions depending on the equilibrium of forces among action, reflection,experiencing,and conceptualizing.As withtheconceptoflifespace, this positionis determinedby a combinationof individual dispositionand characteristicsofthelearnThe LSI measuresan individual's ingenvironment. for a preference particularregionof the learning "homeregion"so to speak. that individual's space, Learners'scoreson theLSI place themin one ofthe nine regionsdepictedin Figure2, each ofwhichis associated witha specificprocessoflearningfrom experience.These regionsare named forthepoints of the compass and are divided into specialized

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learning regions and integrativeor balancing learningregions.The regionsof the ELT learning types of space offera typologyof the different which extent to the based on theyrequire learning action versus reflection,experiencing versus therebyemphasizingsome stages ofthe thinking, learningcycle overothers. The learningprocess in specialized learningregions, accommodating,diverging,assimilating, and converging,stronglyemphasizes one pole of dialectic and one pole of the the feeling/thinking dialectic. Individuals in the NW acting/reflecting regionlearn primarilythroughactingand feeling. and In theNE regionlearnersemphasizereflecting feeling.In the SE region learners emphasize reIn theSW regionindividuals flectingand thinking. learn throughthinkingand acting. In the integrativelearningregions,N, E, S, W, and C, thelearningprocess integratesthepoles of one or both of the two dialectics. The learning process in the N regionintegratesacting and reflectingwitha primaryemphasis on feeling.In the E region the learning process integratesfeeling and thinkingwitha primaryemphasis on reflecting. In the S regionlearnersintegrateactingand In witha primaryemphasis on thinking. reflecting feelthe W regionthe learningprocess integrates ing and thinkingwitha primaryemphasis on action.In thecentralregionlearnerstake an integrative approach to learning that balances feeling, acting,and reflecting. thinking, The ELT learningspace conceptemphasizesthat learningis notone universalprocessbuta map of a frameof referencewithin learning territories, whichmanydifferent ways oflearningcan flourish thatoriand interrelate.It is a holisticframework of ents the many different learningto one ways another.As Lewin put it, Actually,the termlearningrefersto a multitude of different phenomena.The statement, has to learn, autocracyis one "Democracy, imposed on the person,"refersto one typeof learning.Ifone says thatthespastic childhas to learn to relax one is speakingofa different type of learning. Both types probablyhave verylittleto do withlearningFrenchvocabulary,and thistypeagain has littleto do with learningto like spinach.Have we any rightto classify learning to high-jump,to get along withalcohol, and to be friendlywithpeople underthe same term,and to expectidentical laws toholdforany oftheseprocesses?(Cited 1951:65). in Cartwright,


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Experientiallearningcan be viewed as a process of locomotionthroughthe learning regions that is influencedby a person's position in the learningspace. Researchusing theAdaptiveStyle Inventory(ASI; Boyatzis& Kolb, 1993)has shown thatindividualsvaryin theirabilityto moveabout the learningspace fromtheirhome region(e.g.,a personscoringin thesouthernregionmovingfrom the thinking-oriented southernregionto the feelnorthern ing-oriented region)and thatthiscapacto to ity adapt flexibly changinglearningcontexts is related to higherstages of adult development (Kolb,1984,chap. 8). One's positionin thelearning space defines that person's experience and thus definestheir"reality".Lewin stresses the importance foreducationofdefiningthe learningspace in termsofthe learner'sexperience: offieldtheory One ofthebasic characteristics in psychology,as I see it,is the demand that the field which influences an individual shouldbe describednotin objectivephysicalistic terms,but in the way that it exists for that person at that time... A teacher will neversucceed in givingproperguidance to a child if he does not learn to understandthe psychological world in which that child lives ... To substituteforthat world of the individual the world of the teacher,of the physicist,or ofanybodyelse is to be, notob1951: jective,but wrong(Cited in Cartwright, 62). LEARNING SPACES IN HIGHER EDUCATION

To illustratethe concept of learning space, we presentdata showing the distributionof student ofhigheredulearningstylesin threeinstitutions in cation that are engaged longitudinalinstitutionaldevelopmentprogramsto promotelearning: the Case Weatherhead School of Management MBAprogram,theCleveland InstituteofArtundergraduateprogram,and the Case WesternReserve Universityundergraduate program. The Case Weatherheadinstitutionaldevelopmentprogram, reportedin Innovationin ProfessionalEducation: Steps on a JourneyFrom Teaching to Learning (Boyatzis,Cowen, & Kolb 1995),focusedon curriculumdevelopment,studentdevelopment,and longitudinaloutcomeassessment(Boyatzis,Stubbs,& Taylor,2002).MBA studentlearningstyle data is fromBoyatzisand Mainemelis(2000).The program at the Cleveland InstituteofArtis partofa longitudinalstudyofartisticlearningconductedby the Ohio Consortiumon Artisticlearninginvolvinga longitudinalstudyof artisticlearningstyles,stu-

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dentdevelopmentworkshops,and facultydevelopmentseminars(A.Kolb& Lingham2002;Eickmann, A. Kolb, & D. Kolb, 2003). The Case programto enhance experientiallearningin the undergraduate curriculuminvolves longitudinaloutcomeassessment,curriculumdevelopment,facultydevelopment,and studentdevelopment. ComparingLearningStylesofCase Management and CIA ArtStudents Figures 3 and 4 show how the learningstyles of managementand art studentsare distributedin thelearningregions.Artstudentsare concentrated in the feeling-orientednorthernregions of the learning space, while managementstudentsare concentratedin the thinking-oriented southernreone of art students gions. Forty-two point percent are in the northern regions,while 23.6%are in the south.Forty-five point seven percentof management studentsare in the southernregions with 21.2% in the north.More art studentsare in the easternregionsthanin thewesternregions(35.2% to 26.3%).More managementstudentsare in the westernregionsthanin theeasternregions(36.3% to 30.4%).Amongartstudentsthe SW regionis the least populated (3.7%),while the least-populated regionformanagementstudentsis the NE (5.1%). Ten pointtwopercentofmanagementstudentsare in the balancing centralregion,while 12.5%ofart studentsare there.Boyatzisand Mainemelisfound significantcorrelationsbetweenabstractlearning styles and grades and GMAT indicatinga bias toward abstraction in evaluation and selection practices.For BFA graduates,therewas no relationshipbetweengrades and learningstyle. ComparingLearningSpaces in Managementand the Arts Our observationsof the way the educational process is conductedin art schools and management schools reveal some strikingdifferences thatgive insightintothe natureof learningin the different learningregions.Dewey's distinctionbetweenartisticand scientificlearninghelps us understand the differencebetween the kinds of learningthat occurin arteducationand in managementeducation: The rhythm of loss of integrationwithenvironmentand recoveryof union not onlypersistsin man,butbecomesconsciouswithhim; its conditionsare material out of which he formspurposes.Emotionis theconscioussign of a break,actual or impending.The discord


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Feeling-Acting

10.1%

ACTIVE

EXPERIMENTATION

N

NE

6%

5.1%

Feeling Feeling-Reflecting Acting-Reflecting

AIg

^

J*^

REFLECTIVE

+ ReflectingFeeling-Thinking Feeling-Thinking Acting OBSERVATION 13.5%

Thinking

10.2%

9.3%

SW

S

SE

12.7%

17%

16%

Thinking-Acting Thinking Thinking-Reflecting Acting-Reflecting

ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION FIGURE3 of LearningStyles MBAStudents(N = 1286)

is theoccasionthatinducesreflection. Desire forrestoration of the unionconvertsmere emotionintointerest in objectsas conditions of realizationof harmony. Withthe realizaofreflection is incorporated into tion,material the as their Since artist objects meaning. cares in a peculiarway forthephase ofexperiencein whichunionis achieved,he does notshunmoments ofresistanceand tension. He rathercultivatesthem,notfortheirown sake but because of their potentialities, to livingconsciousnessan experibringing with encethatis unified and total.Incontrast thescithepersonwhosepurposeis esthetic, in situin problems, entific manis interested of ationswhereintensionbetweenthematter observationand of thoughtis marked.Of Buthe coursehe cares fortheirresolution. does notrestin it; he passes on to another problem usingan attainedsolutiononlyas a steppingstoneon whichtoseton footfurther inquires. andthe Thedifference betweentheesthetic intellectualis thusone of the place where that emphasisfalls in the constantrhythm with markstheinteraction ofthelivecreature hissurroundings . . . Becauseofthecompara-

tive remotenessof his end, the scientific workeroperateswithsymbols,words,and mathematical signs.Theartistdoeshisthinkin the veryqualitativemediahe worksin, ing and thetermslie so closetotheobjectthathe intoit thattheymergedirectly is producing 1934: 15-16). (Dewey, in themanageawarenessofdifferences A first mentand artslearningspaces came as we were forart stupreparinga learningstyleworkshop dents.We asked whatreadingswe shouldgive Paul Eickmann, and theprovost, said,"Youknow, forartstudentslearningis nottextdriven."This eduwithmanagement stoodin dramaticcontrast cation,whichis almostentirely organizedaround disscientific textsthatdeliveran authoritative basis of the management course.The scientific was establishedin 1959byan influencurriculum thatsoughttoimtialCarnegieFoundation report of manageintellectual the respectability prove itin threescientific menteducationbygrounding and behavmathematics, disciplines:economics, ioralscience. eduThe text-driven approachofmanagement cation contrastswiththe experientiallearning process of demonstration-practice-production-


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N

NE

13.8%

17.2%

11.1%

Ac*g

pJLg

RefiLg

Feeling-Acting

ACTIVE


REFLECTIVE

+ Reflecting Feeling-Thinking Feeling-Thinking Acting OBSERVATION

EXPERIMENTATION

Thinking

8.8%

12.5%

13%

S

SE

SW Thinking-Acting

Thinking Thinking-Reflecting Acting-Reflecting

3.7%

8.8%

11.1%

ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION FIGURE 4 Learning Style Distributionof CIA Graduating Students (N = 216)

critiquethatis used in mostartclasses (see Table in artedu1).Thisprocessis repeatedrecursively while education is cation, primarily management witheach topiccoveredin a linearsediscursive, Managequence withlittlerecursiverepetition. menteducationfocuseson telling;arteducation emphasizes showing. Managementeducation arteducationemphatendsto emphasizetheory; Arteducaoftheory and practice. sizesintegration tionfocusesonthelearners'inside-out expression; educationon outside-in impression. management Mosttimein managementclasses is spentconwith relativelylittle time veyinginformation TABLE 1 of Arts Education and Management Comparison Education ArtsEducation

ManagementEducation

Aesthetic Demo-practice-production-critique Recursive Theoryand practice Showing Expression Individualized Diversefaculty

Scientific Textdriven Discursive Theory Telling Impression Batched Abstractfaculty

mostofwhichocspenton studentperformance, curson testsand papers.In artclasses, themajorityofthetimeis spenton studentexpression of ideas and skills. Arteducationtends to be withsmall classes and individindividualized, ual attention, while managementeducationis organizedintolarge classes withlimitedindividualizedattention.An assistant dean at the ColumbusCollege of Artand Design who maand latergot joredin musicas an undergraduate an MBA,contrasted the3 hoursa weekhe spent in individualtutorialwithhis mentorwiththe shockhe experiencedin enteringa tieredMBA classroomof200students.Finally,arteducation tendstobe represented memberswith byfaculty diverse learningstyles,whereas management education tends to favor specialized faculty memberswitha primarily abstractlearningorientation. Locomotion in theArtsLearning Longitudinal Space LSI scoresfromCIA studentsat the Longitudinal oftheirfreshman andjunioryearsshow beginning a significant movement amongstudentsfromthe reflective easternregionsto the active western



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regions,perhaps indicatingstudentgrowthand developmenttoward a more active role in their own learningas a resultoftheempowering, active structure ofthe CIA learningenvironment (see Table 2). Longitudinalstudies ofLSI changes among undergraduates in Alverno College's program, which emphasizes competency development throughactive experientiallearning,show similar movementfromthe reflectiveto active learning regionsacross thefreshmanto senioryears (Mentkowski& Strait1983;Mentkowskiand Associates, 2000).

LearningStylesofCase Undergraduates of Case freshmen Figure5 shows the distribution in thelearningregions.As mightbe expectedfrom a researchuniversityliberal arts programwitha strongemphasis on science and engineering,the patternof LSI scores shows a distributionacross the learning regions that is similar to the Case MBA programin its emphasis on the abstract southernregions.Forty-nine percentofCase freshmen are positioned in the southernregions (vs. 47.5%MBAs) and 16.8%of the freshmenare in the northern regions(vs. 21.2%MBAs).As withtheMBA students,there are significantcorrelationsbetweenabstractselectioncriteria,(SAT scores),and abstractLSI scores (r = .32). However,the Case freshmen are moresimilarto theCIA graduatesin theirdistributionin the eastern and westernregions. Thirty-five pointfivepercentof Case freshmen are in the eastern regions (vs. 35.2% CIA). Twenty-three pointthreepercentofCase freshmen are in thewesternregions(vs. 26.3%CIA). The NW is theleast populatedlearningregion(3.5%),while theS regionhas thegreatestnumberofCase freshmen (19.4%).

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Skill Developmentand LearningRegions Table 3 shows the relationshipbetween the positionofCase freshmenin the learningregionsand theirlearningskills as measured by the Learning Skills Profile.Five of the 12 learning skill areas show significantF values. All three conceptual skill areas, TheoryBuilding,QuantitativeAnalysis, and Technologyskills show significantdifferences among regions.Tukeyand Scheffetestsindicate thattheoryskills are highestin the S and SW and lowestin theNE region.Quantitativeanalysis skills are highestin the S and lowest in the NW,N, and NE regions.Amongthe interpersonal across skillareas, onlyhelp skillswere significant the than NW with the higher significantly regions, S region.In the action skills area, only initiative skills were significantwiththe NW area significantlyhigherthantheE, SE, and C regions.Noneof skillareas weresignificant theinformation among regions. Summary The portraitsof institutionallearningspaces presented above suggest thatstudentlearningstyle scores may be a way to describe the institutional learningspaces experiencedby students.In particularthecomparisonbetweentheobservededucational programsand teaching methodsof CIA arts education and Case MBA education seems consistentwith respective student LSI distributionsin the nine-regionlearningspace, withMBA studentsprimarilyin the southernthinkingand westernacting regions,and arts studentsfalling feelingand easternreflecmainlyin the northern tionregions.The corresponding discursive,telling, educational methodsofthe MBAprogramand the recursive,showing,techniques of the art school

TABLE2 Year CIA Students'LearningStyleat the Beginningofthe Freshmanand Junior Freshman(2000)

(2001) Junior

LSI Scores

n

M

SD

M

SD

ta

(CE) Experiencing (RO) Reflecting Conceptualizing(AC) Acting(AE) AC-CE AE-RO

77 77 77 77 77 77

26.31 31.36 28.88 32.88 2.57 1.52

6.07 6.56 6.28 6.48 9.97 11.40

26.87 29.23 29.34 34.56 2.47 5.32

6.64 7.00 7.47 6.80 11.88 11.56

-0.66 2.42** -0.54 -1.95* 0.08 -2.61**

a

Significancelevels are forpaired sample t testsas two-tailedtests. *p < .05.**p < .01.


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N

NE

3.5%

6.7%

6.6%

Alg

FeJfag +

Feeling-Acting

ACTIVE

EXPERIMENTATION


J*^

REFLECTIVE

Feeling-Thinking ActingReflecting Feeling-Thinking OBSERVATION 7.6%

Thinking

14.2%

11.5%

SW

S

SE

12.2%

19.4%

17.4%

Thinking-Acting Thinking Thinking-Reflecting Acting-Reflecting

ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION FIGURE 5 Case 2002 Undergraduate Freshman LSI Distribution (N = 288)

recall Dewey's descriptionofthe scientificworker who "operates with symbols,words and mathematical signs" and the artistwho "does his thinking in the veryqualitativemedia he worksin." The verysimilarlearningspace distributions of Case undergraduateand MBA studentssuggest theinstitutional exosysteminfluenceoftheuniversity'sresearchmissionand cultureon thelearning spaces experiencedbystudents.Bothstudentsand facultyare selected for their abstract learning skills, so it is not surprisingthat the university learningspaces would predominatein the southernregions. As the undergraduatedata on learning skills and learningregionssuggest,the nine regionsof the experiential learning space are associated withspecificlearningprocesses.The learningprofor cesses in each regionare in turnmosteffective theachievementofcertainlearningoutcomes.For northern regionsare example,thefeeling-oriented most effectivefor learning interpersonalskills, southernregions are while the thinking-oriented mosteffectiveforlearninganalyticand quantitative skills. Individuals' learning styles represent their preferencesfor particular regions of the learningspace, theirhomebases so to speak. That Case specializes in education forabstract,ana-

lyticskills makes sense in that its mission is to prepare studentsforcareers thatrequireabstractionand analysis. However,to learn skills outside of theirhome region,learners need to move to otherregionsand thelearningprocessforany skill requirestheabilityto movethroughtheexperiencand actingcycle.To fully ing,reflecting, thinking, develop thewhole personrequiresan educational culturethatpromotesdiverselearningspaces and locomotionamong them. CREATING LEARNING SPACES FOR THE ENHANCEMENT OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

The enhancement of experiential learning in highereducationcan be achieved throughthecreation of learning spaces that promotegrowthproducingexperiencesforlearners.A centralconcept in Dewey's educational philosophy is the continuumofexperiencein whichexperiencesthat promoteor inhibitlearningare arrayed."The belief that all genuine education comes about throughexperiencedoes notmean thatall experiences are genuinelyeducative. . . For some experiencesare mis-educative.Anyexperienceis miseducative that has the effectof arresting or distortingthe growthof furtherexperience . . .


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Hencethecentralproblemofan educationbased is toselectthekindofpresentexpeonexperience and creativelyin subriencesthatlive fruitfully sequent experiences"(Dewey, 1938: 25-28).A numberofeducationalprinciplesflowfromthis philosophy. RespectforLearnersand TheirExperience

A growth-producing experiencein thephilosophy notonlytoa direct ofexperiential learningrefers understudy related to a subjectmatter experience lifespace ofthe butalso to thetotalexperiential learner.Thisincludesthelearner'sphysicaland and qualityof relationships. social environment We referto thisas the cheers/jeers experiential Atone end learnersfeelthattheyare continuum. whoare known ofa learningcommunity members and respectedby facultyand colleagues and whose experienceis taken seriously,a space knowsyourname."Attheother "whereeverybody extremeare "mis-educative" learningenvironmentswherelearnersfeelalienated,alone,unrecinthe andgrowth anddevalued.Learning ognized, "where knows environment nobody your jeers ifnotimpossible. Whilethis name"can be difficult it mayseemobviousoreven"preachy," principle foreventhefinesteducationalinis problematic PresidentLawrenceSummersof Harstitutions. addressto varddedicatedhis2003commencement examination of a introduction the comprehensive in part motivated oftheundergraduate program, from a science student received a letter he top by "I am intheeighth thestatement, whichcontained nota singlesciand there is of semester college could me by here who ence professor identify name."Summersconcludes:"Theonlytruemeasureofa successfuleducationalmodelis ourstuofit"(Summers, 2003:64). dents'experience BeginLearningWiththe Learner'sExperienceof the SubjectMatter

learnersmustfirstof all To learnexperientially Studentswillofvalue their ownand experience. mean"But I don't have tensay, anyexperience," their is believe that experience ingthattheydon't or for the the teacher of any value to learning at hand.Thenewscienceoflearnsubjectmatter & Cocking2000)is based on Brown, ing(Bransford, theoriesofPiagetand constructivist thecognitive that that people construct Vygotsky emphasize from whatthey andunderstanding newknowledge based on their know and believe, previous already experience.Zull (2002)suggeststhat this prior knowledgeexistsin the brainas neuronalnet-

207

workswhichcannotbe erasedby a teacher'scoteacher gent explanation.Instead the effective builds on exploration of what studentsalready knowand believe,onthesensetheyhavemadeof theirpreviousconcreteexperiences.Beginning withtheseorrelatedconcrete allows experiences thelearnerto re-examine and modify theirprevious sensemaking in lightofthenewideas. Creatingand Holdinga Hospitable Space for Learning

To learnrequiresfacingand embracing differencbetweenskilled es; whethertheybe differences and one'snovicestatus,differexpertperformance encesbetweendeeplyheldideas and beliefsand newideas,ordifferences inthelifeexperience and values of othersthatcan lead to understanding them.These differences can be challengingand a threatening, requiring learningspace thatenthe and the courages expressionof differences to the learner in facpsychological safety support these As Robert ing challenges(Sanford,1966). Kegansays,"peoplegrowbestwheretheycontinan ingenious blendofchallenge uouslyexperience and support"(1994:42).As Kegan impliesby his use ofthetermingenious andholdblend,creating this is not He notes that ing learningspace easy. while educationalinstitutions have been quite successful inchallenging students, theyhavebeen muchless successfulin providingsupport.One reasonforthismaybe thatchallengestendtobe while supportmustgo specificand immediate, an immediate "You-can-do-it" statement. beyond Creatingand holdinga learningspace requiresa climateor cultureofsupportthatthelearnercan trustto "hold"themovertime.In Conversational & Kolb,2002),we drawon Jensen, Learning(Baker, the worksof HenriNouwen(1975)and Parker Palmer(1983,1990,1998)todescribethischallengingand supportive learningspace as onethatwelcomesthestranger in a spiritofhospitality where "studentsand teacherscan enterintoa fearless communication witheach otherand allow their life tobe theirprimary and respective experiences mostvaluable sourceofgrowth and maturation" (Nouwen,1975:60). MakingSpace forConversationalLearning

Humanbeingsnaturally makemeaningfrom their conversation. Yet genuine experiencesthrough in thetraditional conversation lectureclassroom can be extremely restricted ornonexistent. Atthe breakorend oftheclass thesometimes painfully silentclassroomwill suddenlycome alive with


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spontaneousconversationamong students.Significant learning can occur in these conversations, althoughit may not always be the learning the teacherintended.Making space forgood conversation as partofthe educational process provides theopportunity forreflection on and meaningmakabout that ing experiences improvethe effectiveness ofexperientiallearning(Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs 2002;Bunker1999).For example, the creation of learning teams as part of a course promotes effectivelearning when psychologically safe conditionsare present (Wyss-Flamm,2002). ConversationalLearningpresentsthe dimensions of spaces that allow forgood conversation.It is morelikelyto occurin spaces thatintegratethinking and feeling,talkingand listening,leadership and solidarity,recognitionofindividualityand relatedness,and discursiveand recursiveprocesses. When the conversationalspace is dominatedby one extremeof these dimensions,for example, talkingwithoutlistening,conversationallearning is diminished. MakingSpace forDevelopmentofExpertise Withvast knowledgebases in everyfieldthatare ever changingand growing,many highereducationcurriculaconsistofcourseaftercourse "covering" a series of topics in a relativelysuperficial factualway. Yet as theNationalResearchCouncil in its reporton thenew science oflearningrecommendson thebasis ofresearchon expertlearners, effective learningrequiresnotonlyfactualknowlbut theorganizationofthese factsand ideas edge, in a conceptual framework and the abilityto retrieveknowledgeforapplication and transferto different contexts(Bransford,Brown,& Cocking 2000).Such deep learningis facilitatedby deliberate, recursivepracticeon areas thatare relatedto the learner's goals (Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs 2002).The process of learningdepicted in the experientiallearningcycle describes this recursive spiral ofknowledgedevelopment.Space needs to be createdin curriculaforstudentsto pursuesuch deep experientiallearningin orderto develop expertiserelatedto theirlifepurpose. MakingSpaces forActingand Reflecting Learningis like breathing;it involvesa takingin and processingofexperienceand a puttingout or expressionof what is learned. As Dewey noted, "nothingtakes rootin mindwhen thereis no balance betweendoing and receiving.Some decisive actionis needed in orderto establish contactwith therealitiesoftheworldand in orderthatimpres-

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sions maybe so relatedto factsthattheirvalue is tested and organized" (1934: 45). Yet many programsin highereducationare muchmorefocused on impressinginformationon the mind of the learner than on opportunitiesforthe learners to expressand testin actionwhattheyhave learned. Many courses will spend 15 weeks requiringstuand onlya dentsto take in volumesofinformation their learnand of hours testing expressing couple is in This exam. on a often multiple-choice ing, contrastto arts educationbuilton the demonstration-practice-critiqueprocess where active expressionand testingare continuouslyinvolvedin the learningprocess. Zull (2002)suggests thatactionmaybe themostimportant partofthelearning the it closes because by bringingthe cycle cycle and thoughtintocontact inside worldofreflection withthe outside worldof experiencescreated by action (cf. Dewey, 1897). Keeton, Sheckley and Gross (2002)proposeanotherlevel ofaction/reflection integration,emphasizing the importanceof in deepeninglearningfromexpeactive reflection rience. MakingSpaces forFeeling and Thinking We have seen a polarizationbetweenfeelingand thinkingin the contrast between the feelingorientedlearningspace ofCIA artseducationand the thinking-oriented learningspaces ofthe Case MBA programs.It seems that undergraduateand tend educationalinstitutions todevelop a learning culturethat emphasizes the learningmode most related to theireducational objectivesand to devalue the opposite learning mode. Yet, Damasio (1994,2003),LeDoux (1997),Zull (2002),and others offerconvincingresearch evidence that reason relatedin theirinfluand emotionare inextricably ence on learningand memory.Indeed it appears thatfeelingsand emotionshave primacyin determiningwhetherand whatwe learn.Negativeemotionssuch as fearand anxietycan blocklearning, while positive feelingsof attractionand interest may be essential forlearning.To learn something thatone is notinterestedin is extremelydifficult.

Negative emotionssuch as fearand anxietycan block learning,while positivefeelingsof attractionand interestmay be essential forlearning. MakingSpace forInside-OutLearning David Hunt(1987,1991)describesinside-out learning as a processofbeginningwithoneselfinlearningby


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focusingon one's experiencedknowledge,thatis, the implicittheories,metaphors,interests,desires and goals thatguide experience.Makingspace for inside-outlearningby linkingeducationalexperimoences to thelearner'sinterestskindlesintrinsic tivationand increaseslearningeffectiveness. Under a sparkofintrinthepropereducationalconditions, sic interest can be nurtured intoa flameofcommitted lifepurpose(Dewey,1897).Yet learningspaces that emphasizeextrinsicrewardcan driveout intrinsically motivatedlearning(Deci & Ryan,1985;Kohn 1993;Ryan& Deci, 2000).Longago Deweydescribed the trendtowardemphasis on extrinsicrewardin educationand theconsequencesfortheteacherwho wieldsthecarrotand stick: Thus in education we have that systematic depreciation of interest which has been noted . . . Thus we have the spectacle of professional educators decryingappeal to interestwhile they uphold with great dignity the need of reliance upon examinations, marks, promotions and emotions, prizes and the time honoredparaphernalia of rewards and punishments.The effectof this situation in crippling the teacher's sense of humorhas not received the attention which it deserves (1916:336). MakingSpace forLearnersto Take Charge of TheirOwn Learning Manystudentsenterhighereducationconditioned by theirprevious educational experiences to be passive recipientsofwhattheyare taught.Making space forstudentsto take controlofand responsibilityfortheirlearningcan greatlyenhance their abilityto learn fromexperience.Some authorsuse to describethisprocess of thetermself-authorship constructingone's own knowledge versus passivelyreceivingknowledgefromothers,considerto be a majoraim ofeducation ing self-authorship (Kegan, 1994; King, 2003; Baxter-Magolda,1999). Othersdescribe this goal as increasingstudents' capacity forself-direction(Boyatzis,1994;Robertson, 1988).The ManagementDevelopmentand Assessmentcoursein theCase MBAprogramaims to throughassessment develop studentself-direction and feedbackon learningskillsand competencies and thedevelopmentofa learningplan to achieve each student'scareer/lifegoals (Boyatzis,1994). Bransford, Brown,and Cocking(2002)argue forthe developmentof meta-cognitiveskills to promote active learning.By developingtheireffectiveness as learners(Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs,2002),stufor dentscan be empoweredto take responsibility

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their own learning by understandinghow they learn best and the skills necessary to learn in regions that are uncomfortableforthem.Workshops on experientiallearningand learningstyles can help studentstodevelop meta-cognitive learnskills. At CIA and the Case ing undergraduate programs,studentworkshopshelp studentsinterprettheirLSI scores and understandhow to use this information to improvetheirlearning effectiveness. JohnReese at the Universityof Denver Law School conducts"ConnectingwiththeProfessor"workshopsin whichstudentsselectone offour teaching styles based on the fourpredominant learningstylesthattheyhave difficulty connecting with. The workshopgives multipleexamples of remedialactions thatthe learnermay take to correct the misconnectioncreated by differencesin teaching and learning styles.Peer group discussions among law studentsgive an opportunity to create new ideas about how to get the mostfrom professorswith differentlearning and teaching styles(Reese, 1998). PROMOTING LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION THROUGH INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

To implementthese educational learning space principlesrequires a holisticprogramof institutional developmentthat includes curriculumdevelopment,facultydevelopment,studentdevelopment,administrativeand staffdevelopment,and resource development.Programsin these areas need to be coordinatedaroundan institutional vision and missionto promotelearning.Such a coordinatedinstitutionalapproach can providethe synergynecessary for dramatic organizational change,while fragmented approaches in one area are oftenfrustrated lack of interestor underby in others. One can standing develop a state ofthe art learning-focused curriculumthatis doomed to failureiffacultymembersare noton board withit philosophicallyand technically.If administrative leadership has prioritiesfocused on income and ratings,the resourcesforlearningpromotionwill notbe available in otherdevelopmentalareas.

as By developing theireffectiveness learners(Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs, 2002),studentscan be empoweredto take fortheirown learningby responsibility understandinghow theylearn best and the skillsnecessaryto learn in regions thatare uncomfortable forthem.


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in Professional In thelast chapterofInnovation Educationtitled"WhatifLearningWerethePurCowen,& Kolbf1995), pose ofEducation" (Boyatzis, tohelpeducawe proposedfivedesignprinciples oflearnfocuson thepromotion tionalinstitutions ing.

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to experienvision thatstartswitha commitment tial learningwithrigorousscholarshipin undergraduate, graduate and professional education programstoproduceeducated learners- educated learners who are awake to new possibilities" (Campus News,2003:2).

Case has thenewSAGEScurriculum, To support to launcheda 5-yearfaculty program development CenterforInbe organizedand deliveredthrough novationin Teachingand Education(UCITE).Aca totalof80 cordingto theplan ofthisprogram, will unfacultymembersacross the university onhowtodevelopa dergoan intensedevelopment courseorothereducationalexperiences particular based onexperiential learningovertheperiodof5 meetregmembers The institutionaldevelopmentprogramto profaculty years.In thisprogram, moteexperientiallearninginitiatedbyCase Westularlyto discuss the philosophyof experiential thatreernReserveUniversity (Case) providesan example learning,themethodsofimplementation ofthisholisticapproach.In October2000the Case spondto theneeds oftheindividualschoolsand thatneedstobe thecoursestructure departments, presidentand provostcreatedthePresident'sComthatlendthemmissionon UndergraduateEducationand Life.The putinplace,theteachingmethods thegoals,and assessmenttechselvestomeeting Commission's report recommended that Case such and support tocoordinate niques.Inan effort adopt a philosophyof experientiallearning,eninitiainstitutional that statement in the mission/value development university-wide capsulated "CWRUgraduates studentswho have discovered tives,the new presidentcreatedthe Centerfor effort Research(CIR),a collaborative Institutional and are realizing theirown uncommonpotential secfor all research institutional to transformative the support expand through University'suniquely roleis toprovide Itsprimary torsoftheuniversity. environment and its philosophythateducation is facabout the university's students, information best accomplished throughexperience" (Presito environment and dent'sCommission,2001:2). Buildingon the Comstaff, support programs ulty, asdecisionmaking, missionreport, policyanalysis,institutional university facultydeveloped an exinitiaThe Case and called curriculum sessment, strategic planning. perimental undergraduate tivetoenhanceexperiential Seminar Approachto General Education Studies learningintheunder(SAGES).The SAGES 2-yearpilotprogramwas cregraduate curriculumintegratinginstitutional vision a leadership activities ated as part of curriculumrevisionof the underthrough development educaof creation the for an as serves Education General (GER) example Requirements graduate tionallearningspaces thatpromotelearningin of College of Artsand Sciences proposed by the commission.Followingtheproposednew GER rechighereducation. and pro1. Evaluationofeducationalstructures oflearningcriteria. cesses againstpromotion 2. Longitudinal outcomestudiesto determine valueadded. learning institution. a learner-centered 3. Becoming 4. Continuousresearchand inquiryabout the learningprocess. 5. Becominga learningorganizationthrough conversation. continuous stakeholder

ommendations,SAGES was designed to fosterin studentsbreadthas well as specialized knowledge by exposing themto a wide range of disciplines withinthreemajordivisionsofthecollege: Natural Sciences and Mathematics,Artsand Humanities, and Social Sciences in additionto theirmajorfield ofstudy.Such learningobjectivesare to be accomplished througha small class size (max 15 students),intenseone-to-oneadvising,and exposure to diverse learning environmentsand teaching pedagogy across the university(A. Kolb et al., 2003).In 2002the new president,Edward Hundert, embraced the Commissionreport,committedthe fundingto implementfullythe SAGES curriculum beginningin the fall of2005,and in his inaugural address, articulateda vision forthe futureof the "We'regoing to focusall of our collecuniversity: tivetalent,attentionand resourceson a vision- a

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Alice Y. Kolb received her PhD from Case Western Reserve Universityin organizational behavior. She is the president of Experience-Based Learning Systems, Inc., a research and development organization that promotes experiential learning in organizations worldwide. Her currentfocus is on promoting learning in higher education throughinstitutionaldevelopment.

David A. Kolb is professorof organizational behavior at Case Western Reserve University, Weatherhead School of Management. He received his PhD in social psychology fromHarvard University. Kolb is best known forhis research on experiential learning and learning styles described in Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. His current research focuses on team learning and experiential learning in conversation.
