estimated that all the commercial apple trees in the U.S. were being sprayed with insecticides to prevent damage from in
Crop Protection Research Institute
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY THE VALUE OF INSECTICIDES IN U.S. CROP PRODUCTION MARCH 2009
LEONARD P. GIANESSI CropLife Foundation 1156 15th Street, NW #400 Washington, DC 20005 For full report, see www.croplifefoundation.org
This study was funded by CropLife America and seventeen of its member companies. The following organizations have reviewed the report’s case studies and have indicated their support for the findings. Almond Board of California American Sugarbeet Growers Association Artichoke Research Association California Asparagus Commission, Research Committee California Date Commission California Fresh Carrot Board California Pear Advisory Board California Pistachio Research Board Cherry Marketing Institute Mint Industry Research Council National Alfalfa and Forage Alliance National Association of Wheat Growers National Onion Association National Potato Council National Sorghum Producers National Sunflower Association Northwest Horticultural Council Olive Growers Council U.S. Hop Industry Plant Protection Committee U.S. Apple Association United Soybean Board Washington Asparagus Commission
Production Credits: Alexander Rinkus Kristin Rury
Photo Credits: Colorado potato beetle: David Ferro, University of Massachusetts Tomato Fruitworm: University of California IPM Cherry Fruit Fly Maggot: Michigan State University IPM Rice Water Weevil Root Pruning (L[treated], R [untreated]): UC IPM
Key Findings Insecticides are integral to the production of crops in the United States. Their use results in increased yields and farmer income. Without insecticides for control of crop-feeding insects, production of some crops would be impossible in parts or all of the country. Insecticides are the primary means of defense against insects that feed on the 50 crops surveyed. If left untreated, insects will consume plant foliage, roots, and stems, reducing yield, making crops unmarketable, and in some cases, killing the plant.
Growers in California benefit the most from the use of insecticides ($7.5 billion/year), followed by Washington and Florida ($2.8 and $2.5 billion/year, respectively). Eight additional states gain over $400 million per year in production value increases. For every dollar spent on insecticides, U.S. growers gain $19 in increased production value. The historical record supports these impact estimates. Before the use of insecticides became widespread, insects consumed about 50% of the nation’s crops.
Each year, approximately 45 million acres of U.S. crops are treated with insecticides. Over half of the acreage of 42 of the 50 crops is treated with insecticides. Among this group, over 90% of the acres of 23 crops are treated with insecticides.
Most fruit and vegetable crops have been sprayed with insecticides for over 100 years. The key insect pests that led to the initial use of insecticides remain as annual threats. In addition, new invasive cropfeeding insects arrive regularly.
These insecticides, applied to prevent crop loss to insects, cost farmers a total of $1.2 billion per year. If left untreated, 31 of the 50 surveyed crops would suffer nationwide production losses of 40% or greater. Seven of the crops would suffer nationwide production losses over 70%.
The first era of insecticide use lasted from 18901950 and consisted of insecticides based on inorganic compounds and botanicals. The second era began in the 1950s with the introduction of synthetic chemical insecticides which were much more effective than the inorganic and botanical compounds. Production of many crops increased dramatically as a result of better insect control.
Insecticides enable U.S. farmers to produce and harvest greater marketable yields than would otherwise be possible. By mitigating the effects of crop feeding insects, U.S. farmers produce 144 billion pounds of additional food, feed, and fiber and reap $22.9 billion in farm income increases.
Consumers have high standards for insect-free food and farmers use insecticides to meet market standards. Organic growers are permitted the use of non-synthetic chemical insecticides derived from plants and soil microbes as well as soaps and oils. The fact that organic growers of fruit and vegetable crops use insecticides is an indicator of their importance.
Insecticide Use and Impact Summary Total Acres Treated with Insecticides
45 Million Acres
Current Insecticide Cost to Growers
$1.2 Billion
Insecticide Use Yield Benefit (Volume)
144 Billion Pounds
Insecticide Use Yield Benefit (Value)
$22.9 Billion
Insecticide Use Net Benefit (Value)
$21.7 Billion
Insecticide Return Ratio ($ Benefit per $ Insecticide Cost)
$19
Introduction Insects were feeding on plants long before humans began cultivating crops. The fossil record demonstrates that the oldest known insect from 390 million years ago fed on early land plants. Insect species and their host plants evolved together developing intricate relationships for survival and living in equilibrium for millions of years. Of the insect species that feed on plants, 80% are host-specific, that is they feed on plants of only one family or a few closely related families. Host-specific insects have an uncanny ability to find and recognize their host plants. With very few exceptions, adult females lay their eggs on the “right” species of plant, which they instinctively “know” will be acceptable food for their offspring. Humans invented agriculture and formed a partnership with plants only about 10,000 years ago. Wild plants were moved into cultivated fields and orchards and the insects that fed on the wild plants moved in as well. For thousands of years humans accepted insects as part of the normal environment over which they had little or no control, and it is only in the last 150 years, that humans have made any real attempt to reduce their effectiveness as competitors for crops. Before the advent of the Europeans, native Americans in eastern areas cultivated maize, pumpkins, squash, and beans. In addition, these peoples ate wild berries, fruits, and nuts. Native Californians did not cultivate crops and subsisted on wild acorns, insects, small game and fish. Wheat and other grains were introduced by European settlers in the early 1600s. The colonists experimented with seeds of the European garden vegetables which they brought over with them. Cabbages, onions, carrots, spinach, asparagus, and potatoes were mentioned in the 1600s. Apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches and grapes were grown from
seeds and partly from trees and vines brought over from Europe. In the 1720’s the French brought sugarcane plants to Louisiana to determine if a profitable crop could be grown there. All the cultivated crops grown in California were introduced over time. At the beginning, the ancient cultivated crops, corn and squash, suffered mainly from periodic populations of native insects including armyworms and grasshoppers. Native Americans planted four or more maize seeds in a single mound because so many seedlings were destroyed by worms. Insect pests of introduced crop plants developed in America in three basic ways: (1) Native insects adapted to feeding on the introduced plants; (2) insect pests were brought into America with the plants; (3) insect pests have continued to arrive in America from around the world decades and centuries after the plants were introduced. The first introduced insect pest of widespread concern was the Hessian fly which was believed to have been introduced in the bedstraw of Hessian soldiers during the Revolutionary War. Wheat growing in New England declined dramatically as a result of the destructiveness of this fly. The onion maggot first arrived in America in 1841- possibly in soil used as ballast in sailing ships. Many Eastern growers gave up on growing onions. The hop aphid, a native of Europe, first appeared in the U.S. in 1863 and ruined the crop in many eastern states with reported yield losses of 90%. Rice, a grass plant, was introduced into America in the 1690s. Two native insect species that had been feeding on grass plants adapted to rice and became known as the “rice water weevil” and “rice stink bug.” By feeding on the rice plant, these insects can reduce yields by up to 45%. Filberts (hazelnuts) were introduced into Oregon where a native insect that had been feeding on acorns adapted to the new nut crop and became known as the “filbertworm.” The filbertworm damages about 20% of the nuts in untreated orchards every year. The artichoke, a
thistle plant, was introduced into California where an insect feeding on thistles adapted and became known as the “artichoke plume moth.” Before the use of insecticides, 50-70% of California’s artichokes contained worms at harvest. Many attempts have been made to introduce into America natural predators and parasites of crop insect pests from their place of origin. Despite some spectacular success stories, most attempts to establish effective biological controls of crop pests in America have not been successful. Borers caused an estimated annual loss of 830% in Louisiana sugarcane fields in the early 1900s. Twenty-one species of exotic parasites were released. These parasites had been known to be parasitizing borers in the Caribbean Islands. However, these parasites failed in Louisiana perhaps because winter temperatures in the state are too cold for their survival.
until the eighth year when not a single wormfree apple could be found. Some insects vector bacterial diseases to plants when they feed. Pathogens are spread from plant to plant. Control of the bacterial disease depends on control of the insect vector. In pistachio and peanuts, there is a high correlation of feeding by the navel orangeworm and the lesser cornstalk borer and the presence of aflatoxins. The use of insecticides protects consumers from harmful aflatoxins in foodstuffs. The Asian citrus psyllid transmits the citrus greening pathogen. Trees infected by the disease live 5 to 8 years during which time they produce unmarketable fruit with a bitter taste. The psyllid was first identified in Florida in 1998 and in California in 2008. The psyllid populations are managed with insecticide sprays.
Insecticides are used to manage approximately 90% of current crop insect problems in the United States. Insecticides have certain characteristics that account for their widespread use: • Few pests cannot be controlled by one or more of the many chemical insecticides available. • Insect control by chemicals is positive and rapid. High and damaging populations of most pests generally can be reduced within hours and thus provide immediate protection. • A single insecticide or a combination In the 1930s the State of Georgia conducted a of two or more insecticides often can mass release program of a parasite that provided be used to control several pest about 50% control of the oriental fruit moth. species on a given crop at the same The program was abandoned with the time. introduction of synthetic chemical insecticides • An individual property owner can that provided 98% control. take unilateral action as needed to protect his or her interests when pest Ten year research in a New York apple orchard problems arise. demonstrated that within two years after • Suitable materials, formulations, and insecticides were no longer used, insect injuries equipment supplied by chemical and had increased to the point where the crop was equipment industries are readily commercially worthless. Damage increased available for immediate use. In the early 1900s, California researchers looked for predators of the codling moth which was causing losses of up to 50% in walnuts. Although a number of parasites and predators were found, it was concluded by the 1920s that seldom, if ever, are these enemies of the codling moth important enough to effect satisfactory control. The pea aphid threatened the Northwestern canning industry in the early 1930s with about 50% crop losses. Lady beetles were imported from California and released into pea fields. However, most of the lady beetles flew away and provided no control of the aphid.
•
For new pest species, one or more of the chemical insecticides already available can be evaluated quickly and used for control. This allows time for research on alternative means of control if they are needed.
About 750 insect species are serious pests of crops every year in the U.S. In addition, one major new pest becomes established in the U.S. every three years on the average.
control in the U.S., the results of control experiments, and the practices employed by organic growers to control insects. This literature review is summarized for each crop in a series of Case Study documents available at: www.croplifefoundation.org. These Case Study documents total 440 pages of text and cite 1400 references. Historical Review
The historical record makes clear the importance of insecticides in preventing serious crop losses in U.S. agriculture. The first insect problem addressed with widespread insecticide To document the value of insecticides in U.S. spraying was the Colorado potato beetle which crop production, this study examines their role in the growing of fifty specific crops which are had reduced potato production by 25-35%, leading to a quadrupling in the price of potatoes. listed in Table 1. These crops were selected as Spraying insecticides to prevent these losses to being the major users of insecticides based on the Colorado potato beetle began in the 1870s insecticide use data compiled in the CropLife and has continued ever since. The San Jose Foundation’s national pesticide use database scale killed thousands of fruit trees in the U.S. (available at www.croplifefoundation.org). before the development of dormant season Table 1 displays 2008 national production and insecticide sprays in the 1890s. By 1908 USDA acreage estimates for each crop along with estimated that all the commercial apple trees in estimates of national insecticide cost. The fifty the U.S. were being sprayed with insecticides to crops total 268 million acres with an annual prevent damage from insects like the codling production of 1.4 trillion pounds of food, feed and fiber with a combined value of $144 billion. moth which, left unsprayed, would have resulted in a high percentage of wormy apples. Nationally, it is estimated that 45 million acres of the fifty crops are treated with insecticides. In the early 1900s insecticide spray For 23 of the fifty crops, the national percent recommendations were made for the grape acreage treated with insecticides exceeds 90%. berry moth which had reduced grape production Growers of the fifty crops are estimated to in parts of New York by 25-50%. Similarly in spend $1.2 billion annually on the purchase of insecticides. The national estimates are sums of Wisconsin in the early 1900s, it was common 470 state estimates by crop shown in the study’s for as many as 35-40% of cabbage heads to be made unfit for market because of worm data appendix available at damage. Insecticide sprays reduced the damage www.croplifefoundation.org. Table 2 displays to 1-2%. Research in the early 1900s the production and insecticide use estimates demonstrated that insecticide sprays reduced summed by state. cherry maggot infestations from as much as one-third of the crop to less than 1%. To document the value of insecticides to U.S. crop production, two methods are used: The cotton leafworm was the first insect of literature review and quantitative calculation. major importance to deprive the cotton grower of a substantial portion of the crop. Records Literature Review dating from the eighteenth century show that in For each of the 50 crops, a literature review was some years it destroyed 25 to 90% of the cotton. conducted to collect information on insects that The bollworm became notorious early in the are targets of insecticide use, the history of their nineteenth century. It and the cotton leafworm Methodology
often destroyed the crop completely in some localities. The boll weevil crossed the Rio Grande in 1892. It advanced 40 to 160 miles a year and by 1922 it had infested more than 85% of U.S. cotton acreage. Hundreds of spraying experiments for cotton insects were made in the early 1900s. In 1916, it was shown that dust applications of calcium arsenate would control the bollworm, boll weevil, and leafworm. Thus, it became possible for cotton to be profitably produced despite the insects. Despite the widespread use of inorganic and botanical insecticides throughout the early 1900s which greatly reduced crops lost to insects, there were many insects that were poorly controlled until synthetic chemical insecticides were introduced in the late 1940s. Although Southern Florida had an ideal climate for growing sweet corn in the winter, it was impossible to grow the crop until synthetic insecticides were developed in the 1940s. As a result of insecticide use, Florida established itself as the number one state in the U.S. in the growing of fresh sweet corn (Figure 1). Economical control of onion thrips was not successful until the introduction of synthetic chemical insecticides which increased yield by 40-80% and produced a net financial gain of $5 for every $1 spent on insecticides. In the early 1900s the pepper weevil caused a 33% loss in the commercial pepper crop for several consecutive years. Many growers gave up the growing of peppers. Until synthetic chemicals were introduced, there was no satisfactory control. In the early 1940s insects caused a loss of between 50 and 75% of the California date crop depending on variety. Insecticide spraying reduced the number of hidden insects in the date cavity to less than 1%. With inorganic and botanical compounds, the best farmers could hope for was about 15% wormy apples. With synthetic chemicals, the rate of wormy apples was 1-2% or less. Although the inorganic insecticides had controlled Colorado potato beetle populations for many years, they had no effect on
leafhoppers. The use of synthetic chemicals to control the Colorado potato beetle and the potato leafhopper increased potato yields by 60% for a return of $29 per $1.00 spent on insecticides (Figure 2). The first record of sugarbeet root maggot infestation in the Red River Valley was reported in 1947. Synthetic chemical insecticides provided good maggot control with yield increase of from 2 to 4 tons per acre and a return of $10, for every $1 spent on insecticides. Nectarine production in California became viable only when new insecticides were introduced to eliminate surface blemishes caused by thrips feeding (Figure 3) A treatment in the 1930s for carrot rust fly was to apply 250 pounds of naphthalene flakes (moth balls) per carrot acre which deterred the fly from laying eggs. However, carrots could not be used for at least one month because they retained the flavor and odor of moth balls. In the 1960s organophosphate insecticides became the standard treatment reducing infestations from 99% to 2%. Field corn acres were not treated with inorganic or botanical insecticides in the early 1900s due to their expense. With the introduction of inexpensive broad-spectrum soil-applied synthetic chemicals, field corn acreage treated with insecticides grew dramatically in the 1950s. In recent decades new insect pests have caused considerable crop destruction before being brought under effective control with insecticides. In 1990, the glassy-winged sharpshooter (GWSS) appeared in California. The GWSS is an extremely efficient vector of a bacterium that causes Pierce’s Disease which results in grapevine death within two years. Grape growers have been advised to spray insecticides if any GWSS are found in a vineyard. Pecan losses in Georgia to aphids reached 19 million pounds in 1984. Following the introduction and widespread use of systemic
insecticides for aphid control, losses to aphids were reduced by 60-90% (Figure 4).
maggots. Since 1936, insecticides have been obligatory in blueberries.
The avocado thrips was first noticed in California in 1996. Heavily infested orchards experienced 50-80% damage before effective insecticides were made available (Figure 5). Similarly the olive fruit fly was first detected in California in 1998. This pest colonized the state more quickly then any other pest in the past 25 years and was brought under control with insecticide use (Figure 6).
In the 1930s the FDA was made aware of consumer complaints regarding the presence of aphids in canned spinach and adopted a standard of no more than 500 aphids per pound of spinach. Until effective insecticides were developed, fields that were heavily infested with aphids were not harvested.
Interest in improvements of methods for control of the tomato fruitworm was accelerated in The sweet potato whitefly has been considered a 1935 by the finding of worm fragments in canned products, which were subsequently pest in Florida since 1987 when losses in seized and destroyed as contaminated foods by tomatoes were estimated at $15 million. The the FDA. In the 1930s, tomato processors in whitefly has not been a problem since the California set a standard of no more than 10% introduction of new chemical insecticides. California celery growers lost $20 million in the insect infestation in incoming truckloads; currently the industry standard is 2%. last half of 1984 as a result of a newlyintroduced leafminer species. Losses continued The necessity of producing fruit free of insect until new insecticide registrations were blemishes in order to receive high prices from approved. consumers led to widespread use of insecticides. In 1915, estimates were made of the profit In 2000 soybean aphid was first detected and realized from producing a better grade of subsequently spread throughout the Midwest. oranges by spraying for citrus thrips in Spraying for aphids have prevented soybean yield losses of 30-50% in heavily infested fields California. The total cost of three sprays was $14/A which led to an increase in value of (Figure 7). $30/A. In 1924 it was estimated that the depreciation in value of an apple crop as a result Food Marketing Standards of San Jose scale spotting averaged 50%. The necessity of meeting food industry Soil-borne insects feed directly on sweet standards for marketability has resulted in potatoes developing underground causing holes, insecticide spraying to prevent damage from scars, and surface tunnels. Insecticide use insects and to prevent insect contamination of typically increases the yield of marketable food. sweet potatoes by 50% or more. The spraying of insecticides became a priority Pickle processors will refuse to accept a for several crops in the early 1900s because of truckload of cucumbers if they notice even one the actions of the FDA in seizing canned with a pickleworm hole. shipments because of the presence of maggots. In Maine before spraying of blueberries began The feeding of hop aphids on hops plants results in the 1920s, 80% of the berries contained in prolific amounts of sugary excrement. Sooty maggots. By 1931, as a result of insecticide mold grows on the excrement and can destroy a spraying, close to 100% of the berries were crop’s value, as mold renders hops cones maggot-free (Figure 8). Several shipments of unacceptable for brewing. fresh blueberries from New Jersey were confiscated in 1935 because of the presence of
Snap beans for the canned and frozen markets are not visually inspected; thus insecticides are used to guarantee 100% insect-free beans. A set of trade standards have been developed for sunflower kernels for snack foods which stipulate that there should be no more than 2% insect damage. Sunflower growers who do not spray insecticides invariably have insect damage above 10%. Over the years, improvements in fruit quality have been an important competitive market force for pear growers in maximizing profits and have resulted in preferential prices being paid for fruit nearly blemish free. More than two scale insects per pear will drop fruit grade from the U.S. No. 1 to the Fancy level. Canners reject cling peach deliveries with worm damage in excess of 4% by weight because of the difficulty and expense of sorting damaged fruit. Wholesale shippers of fresh peaches universally ascribe to a zero tolerance for insect infestation. No grower can afford to risk rejection of a single tractor trailer of peaches with a value of $14,000 due to insect contamination. A study of the use of synthetic chemical insecticides in preventing lygus bug damage to strawberries showed a net return of $1170 per acre for an application costing $34 per acre. There is no interest in the food industry in lowering food quality standards in order to reduce insecticide use since the blemish-free produce commands the highest price. Organic Insect Control The market pressure to produce high quality food has led organic growers of fruit and vegetables to spray insecticides that are approved for organic operations. The organically-approved insecticides do not contain synthetic chemicals. University of California Pest Management Guidelines identifies sprays of Bacillus Thuringiensis and the Entrust formulation of spinosad as approved and acceptable for organic growers to use in controlling such pests as
tomato fruitworm, cabbageworms, codling moth, beet armyworm, oblique banded leafroller, and western flower thrips. Entrust is also effective in controlling blueberry maggot and cherry fruit fly. Sprays of insecticidal soaps, oils and neem oil are acceptable for reducing populations of whiteflies, lygus bug, leafminers and aphids in organic systems. Organic almond growers typically make a dormant oil application to control San Jose scale. In late March Bacillus Thuringiensis is sprayed to control peach twig borer. Mites are managed with two in-season oil sprays. In July, Entrust is sprayed to control navel orangeworm. Organic raspberries are typically picked by hand to avoid insect contamination. Because of the extremely high cost of manual harvest, conventional raspberry growers spray insecticides to remove insects before mechanical harvest. Some organic rice millers use color sorting equipment to identify and remove insect-damaged rice kernels. This process is expensive and slows down the milling process. Quantitative Calculation Insecticide value is estimated in terms of the economic value to growers of the increased production attributable to the application of insecticides. These estimates of insecticide value are based on assessments of the losses that would be suffered if insecticides were not used as compiled by extension entomologists and released in reports by USDA and the American Farm Bureau Federation. These reports are listed in the “Key References” list. The yield changes predicted in these studies are consistent with losses to uncontrolled insect species as documented in the historical record. The yield loss estimates for each state and crop combination are included in the data appendix available at: www.croplifefoundation.org. Table 3 displays the portion of national production attributable to insecticide use for the fifty crops. For 26 of the fifty crops, the portion of total national production attributable to
insecticide use is 50% or greater. For 3 crops, the proportion of national yield attributable to insecticides exceeds 90% including a complete loss (100%) in hops production without insecticide use. The national aggregate production attributable to insecticides is 144 billion pounds of food, feed and fiber. The total value of production attributable to insecticide use is estimated at $22.9 billion. These benefits are realized after an expenditure of $1.2 billion on insecticides (Table 1). The net value gained by U.S. farmers from insecticide use is approximately $21.7 billion. Nationally, U.S. agriculture realizes a return of $19 on every $1.00 invested in insecticides for crop protection. These national estimates are sums of estimates by state and crop which are presented in the Data Appendix available at: www.croplifefoundation.org. Table 4 displays the impact estimates summed by state. Two examples of crop impacts for each state are included in Table 4. Figure 9 displays insecticide usage by state in terms of acres treated while Figure 10 displays crop production increase in value due to insecticide use by state.
53%; carrots 12%; cotton 28%; tomatoes 51% (processing), 64% (fresh). Summary & Conclusions Plant-feeding insects are a constant enemy of crop production in the U.S. Every growing season, countless larvae hatch from eggs layed the previous growing season. The eggs are laid in proximity to crop plants that are the preferred diet for the insect species. The larvae feed on the crops, become adults, and produce multiple generations each year dramatically increasing their numbers and resultant crop-feeding damage. Prior to the 20th century, much of the nation’s crops were consumed by insects. In the early 1900s farmers began using inorganic and botanical compounds which greatly reduced crop losses to insects. The introduction of synthetic chemical insecticides in the 1950s revolutionized chemical control of insect pests of crops. Newly discovered insecticidal molecules were rapidly adopted by U.S. farmers for their expanded range of insect control and their increased effectiveness.
Comparison to Other Studies This study’s findings with regard to the value and benefits of insecticide use in U.S. crop production are consistent with previously issued studies: Michigan State University researchers estimated that without insecticides, there would be no commercially marketable quality apples or cherries produced in the eastern U.S. Washington State University researchers concluded that without an effective insecticide for the asparagus aphid, there would be a total collapse of the California and Washington asparagus crop. A series of commodity studies conducted by USDA estimated that without insecticide use, the following reductions in U.S. production would occur: cranberries 15-50%; strawberries
Insecticides are the chief means of controlling 90% of the major insect pests attacking crops in the U.S. Farmers spray insecticides on 45 million acres at a cost of $1.2 billion. If left untreated, yields of most crops would decline by 40-50%. Growers gain $22.9 billion in increased production value from the control of crop-feeding insects with insecticides. The benefit of insecticide use in U.S. crop production is a significant increase in domestic production of food, feed, and fiber. Organic production too, is dependent upon the use of insecticides that do not contain synthetic chemicals. This study is a comprehensive documentation of the role that insecticides play in U.S. crop production. U.S. crop production and crop quality today would be considerably lower without the use of insecticides.
Figure 5: Avocados – California Insecticide Use
Figure 1. Florida Sweet Corn Production 120000 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
Million Lbs
100000 80000 Acre 60000 Treatments 40000 20000 1947
1957
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0
1987
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Figure 6: Olives – California Insecticide Use
Figure 2: U.S. Potato Yield
140,000
30
120,000 25
100,000
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80,000 Acre Treatments 60,000
Thousand 15 Lbs/Acre
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5 0 1866 1881 1896 1911 1926 1941 1956 1971
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Figure 7: Soybeans – U.S. Insecticide Use 20
Figure 3: California Nectarine Production
15 600 500
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400
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200
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Figure 8: Maggot-Clean Blueberries (Maine)
0 1936
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Figure 4. Pecan Production Losses Due to Aphids (Georgia) 20
80 60 % of Berries 40 20
15 Million 10 Lbs 5
0 1927
0 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995
1928
1929
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1931
Table 1: Crop Production and Insecticide Use: 2008 Production
Crop Alfalfa Almonds Apples Artichokes Asparagus Avocados Blueberries Broccoli Cabbage Carrots Celery Cherries Corn Cotton Cranberries Cucumbers Dates Eggplant Grapes Green Beans Green Peas Hazelnuts Hops Lettuce Mint Nectarines Olives Onions Oranges Peaches Peanuts Pears Pecans Pistachios Potatoes Raspberries Rice Sorghum Soybeans Spinach Strawberries Sugarbeets Sugarcane Sunflowers Sweet Corn Sweet Peppers Sweet Potatoes Tomatoes Walnuts Wheat Total
Acres (000) 20980 660 346 9 34 66 77 126 51 76 33 113 78470 9435 39 124 5 1 928 259 196 28 41 286 80 31 30 159 657 108 1512 55 519 118 987 16 2995 6745 75088 41 56 920 405 245 563 57 88 410 218 63122 267608
Volume (Million lbs) 139240 1550 9955 119 95 320 385 1977 1758 2679 2125 666 675835 6240 725 1791 35 20 14814 1879 750 64 80 9060 11 575 134 7177 20330 2130 5066 1599 182 278 38739 121 20373 24036 176714 623 2530 43328 23490 312 7992 1668 1388 27757 750 149796 1429261
Value (Million $) 10806 2228 2565 57 90 315 523 708 276 555 346 637 47215 3540 444 357 26 5 3308 423 135 52 320 1979 119 105 51 824 2160 475 1037 377 258 539 3542 284 3390 1522 27263 154 1884 1131 354 92 1052 673 258 2384 751 16556 144145
% Acres Treated 9 85 93 99 82 80 90 95 96 32 97 92 13 62 82 76 95 90 61 87 41 90 100 99 90 80 100 84 95 99 80 95 66 80 81 94 39 19 14 80 98 65 75 100 78 93 90 91 60 7 (17)
Insecticide Use Acres Treated Cost (000) (million $/yr) 1977 29.6 561 66.2 321 48.1 9 3.1 28 0.9 53 9.5 69 1.6 120 17.0 49 6.6 24 0.9 32 7.5 104 11.4 10571 155.8 5880 113.4 32 1.5 94 6.3 5 2.3 1 0.1 566 48.9 226 8.8 80 1.2 25 0.9 41 8.2 283 49.5 72 2.9 25 5.5 30 2.2 134 9.5 628 97.2 107 16.9 1208 21.1 52 16.8 343 17.9 94 3.9 798 94.6 15 0.7 1162 10.4 1311 6.5 10723 92.9 33 1.5 55 27.5 600 15.0 304 7.3 245 5.4 441 23.3 53 15.9 79 8.1 371 37.2 131 14.9 4568 22.8 44733 1177.2
Table 2: Crop Production and Insecticide Use by State: 2008 Production
State Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total
Acres (000) 1350 668 6850 5724 4350 15 444 966 3081 3077 22682 11823 23740 19985 3331 3163 92 1218 34 5786 18258 3848 10047 7418 16445 291 9 264 908 1552 3995 17435 9206 6816 1647 2141 4 1305 14726 3059 16690 725 34 1439 3416 87 6689 775 267608
Volume (mil lbs) 3950 7913 24575 89594 21621 99 1914 20655 9208 36032 152535 68917 158103 73720 14513 33754 1633 5069 403 32130 120410 14232 40657 18223 107267 2658 76 1507 4036 12212 12173 58262 40943 15275 11675 12812 29 3451 62936 9643 35479 5245 151 5548 32161 504 40310 5048 1429261
Value (mil $) 633 1136 3546 18064 1847 29 190 3485 1968 2880 12764 6049 13554 6733 1328 1639 219 511 186 3068 9171 1833 4167 1561 8592 255 26 334 487 1507 1648 5026 4090 1534 1599 1253 7 543 5145 1187 4509 451 34 656 5117 47 3271 266 144145
Insecticide Use Acres Treated Cost (000) (Millions $/year) 520 11.7 269 19.2 1717 30.4 3160 320.7 602 8.7 10 0.4 107 1.6 870 126.2 1886 47.6 367 17.4 2226 21.9 1158 11.6 2367 21.7 1871 16.1 325 4.1 1377 28.9 82 8.6 287 4.4 28 2.0 1513 27.8 3774 47.3 1134 22.4 1210 15.8 354 3.1 2124 37.9 28 0.3 6 0.3 94 3.3 135 2.4 520 18.6 973 28.3 2150 23.7 837 10.6 1087 8.4 414 20.8 437 11.1 3 0.3 373 9.8 1389 14.7 665 9.4 3982 49.5 69 0.7 18 0.6 324 8.7 817 71.3 17 0.9 1003 25.3 54 0.7 44733 1177.2
Table 3: Value of Insecticide Use by Crop: 2008 Decrease W/O Insecticides Production Volume
Crop Alfalfa Almonds Apples Artichokes Asparagus Avocados Blueberries Broccoli Cabbage Carrots Celery Cherries Corn Cotton Cranberries Cucumbers Dates Eggplant Grapes Green Beans Green Peas Hazelnuts Hops Lettuce Mint Nectarines Olives Onions Oranges Peaches Peanuts Pears Pecans Pistachios Potatoes Raspberries Rice Sorghum Soybeans Spinach Strawberries Sugarbeets Sugarcane Sunflowers Sweet Corn Sweet Peppers Sweet Potatoes Tomatoes Walnuts Wheat Total
% 5 43 93 60 67 48 69 75 64 10 48 84 3 30 50 34 85 25 35 58 22 45 100 50 54 64 90 22 77 51 55 85 56 64 29 55 13 8 5 16 56 23 22 50 28 53 45 53 36 3 (10)
(million lbs) 6608 659 9299 71 64 154 266 1502 1119 259 1029 562 20095 1809 366 610 30 5 5134 1085 166 29 80 4485 6 369 121 1611 15579 1095 2766 1367 101 178 11157 67 2567 1865 9550 101 1430 9975 5285 187 2260 890 625 14860 270 4202 143970
Production Value (million $/yr) 604 947 2400 34 62 152 356 538 170 31 167 515 1406 1053 219 138 22 1 1132 211 27 23 320 980 64 67 46 185 1646 294 560 322 144 345 1083 164 430 118 1474 25 1017 260 80 55 431 380 116 1331 271 462 22878
Net Return Ratio ($ / $ Spent on Insecticides) 20 14 50 11 68 16 222 32 26 33 22 45 9 9 146 22 10 25 23 24 22 26 39 20 22 12 21 19 17 17 26 19 8 88 11 234 41 18 16 17 37 17 11 10 18 24 14 36 18 20 (19)
Table 4: Value of Insecticide Use by State: 2008
State Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Total
Net Return Ratio 16 17 15 23 13 32 11 20 22 14 20 19 20 14 10 8 14 13 71 22 14 11 13 11 9 37 47 50 22 26 12 15 20 10 22 17 10 15 12 10 7 27 33 14 39 13 14 7 (19)
Volume Decrease w/o Insecticides (mil lbs)
Value Decrease w/o Insecticides (mil $)
745 1720 2107 35220 1159 30 148 15715 3389 2489 4993 2397 5006 2702 428 6155 763 412 277 3415 10626 1162 1601 379 4707 115 37 402 196 2660 1763 5629 1451 799 2350 1209 11 508 1847 485 2242 222 52 638 10660 107 2742 100 143970
183 324 461 7478 115 13 18 2463 1051 237 447 225 440 227 39 225 123 56 142 614 673 246 200 35 356 11 14 166 53 483 348 357 210 89 470 193 3 148 173 91 370 19 20 120 2778 12 354 5 22878
Yield Loss w/o Insecticides (On Treated Acres) Peanuts 70%; Cotton 70% Lettuce 50%; Alfalfa 50% Rice 30%; Wheat 40% Tomatoes 60%; Strawberries 60% Corn 25%; Wheat 40% Apples 100%; Sweet Corn 25% Soybeans 40%; Sweet Corn 50% Tomatoes 70%; Sweet Corn 100% Cotton 90%; Peanuts 70% Potatoes 25%; Mint 60% Corn 28%; Soybeans 40% Alfalfa 44%; Wheat 40% Corn 28%; Soybeans 40% Wheat 40%; Soybeans 40% Alfalfa 44%; Corn 15% Rice 30%; Sugarcane 30% Blueberries 80%; Potatoes 50% Green Beans 50%; Sweet Corn 50% Tomatoes 15%; Cranberries 90% Cherries 100%; Potatoes 50% Sugarbeets 40%; Sweet Corn 15% Cotton 50%; Rice 30% Rice 30%; Corn 28% Wheat 40%; Alfalfa 44% Sorghum 40%; Wheat 40% Alfalfa 44%; Wheat 40% Apples 100%; Sweet Corn 15% Blueberries 80%; Peaches 100% Onions 10%; Pecans 80% Apples 100%; Grapes 50% Cotton 40%; Sweet Potatoes 50% Sugarbeets 40%; Potatoes 50% Tomatoes 20%; Soybeans 40% Sorghum 40%; Wheat 40% Hops 100%; Pears 90% Corn 18%; Apples 100% Potatoes 50%; Sweet Corn 25% Peaches 100%; Cotton 25% Wheat 40%; Corn 25% Soybeans 40%; Tomatoes 35% Cotton 20%; Rice 30% Corn 10%; Onions 12% Alfalfa 20%; Apples 100% Tomatoes 50%; Peanuts 70% Apples 100%; Potatoes 25% Alfalfa 44%; Apples 100% Cranberries 40%; Cabbage 40% Corn 10%; Sugarbeets 10%
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Knutson, Ronald D., et al., Economic Impacts of Reduced Pesticide Use on Fruits and Vegetables, American Farm Bureau Research Foundation, September, 1993. Lathrop, F.H., “Ten Years of Warfare Against the Blueberry Maggot,” Journal of Economic Entomology, 32(4): 510-513, August 1939. LaRue, J. H., J. E. Dibble, and G. Obenauf, “Thrips in Nectarines,” The Blue Anchor, 21-25, Spring 1972. Losses in Agriculture: A Preliminary Appraisal for Review, Agricultural Research Service, ARS-20-1, 1954.
Decker, G., “Insects in the Economic Future of Man,” Agricultural Chemicals, February 1954.
Metcalf, Robert, “Insects—Man’s Chief Competitors,” Progress and Perspectives for the 21st Century, Entomological Scoiety of America, Lanham, MD, 1991.
Delahaut, Karen A., Susan E. Rice Mahr, and Jeffery A. Wyman, Processing Snap Bean Production: A Biologic and Economic Assessment of Pest Management and Pesticide Usage, University of Wisconsin.
Peters, T. Michael, Insects and Human Society, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1988
Dethier, V.G., Man’s Plague?, Darwin Press, Inc., Princeton, NJ, 1976. Eckenrode, C.J., et al., Biologic and Economic Assessment of Pesticide Use on Dry Bulb Onions, USDA National Agricultural Pesticide Impact Assessment Program, 1999. Eskelsen, Steve et al. Biologic and Economic Assessment of the Impact of Pesticide Use on Asparagus, Washington State University. Glass, E. H. and S. E. Lienk, “Apple Insect and Mite Populations Developing after Discontinuance of Insecticides: 10-Year Record,” Journal of Economic Entomology., 66: 227-32, 1973. Holtz, B.A., et al., Sample Costs to Produce Organic Almonds, University of California Cooperative Extension, 2007. The Importance of Pesticides and Other Pest Management Practices in U.S. Cotton Production, USDA National Agricultural Pesticide Impact Assessment Program, NAPIAP Report No. 1-CA-93, June, 1993. Gunther, F.A. and L.R. Jeppson, Modern Insecticides and World Food Production, John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, 1960. Knipling, E.F., The Basic Principles of Insect Population Suppression and Management, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook Number 512, Washington, D.C., 1979.
Rice Mahr, Susan E., and L. Joe Moffitt, Biologic and Economic Assessment of Pesticide Usage on Cranberry, USDA, National Agricultural Pesticide Impact Assessment Program, Report No. 2-CA-94, 1994. Ricks, D., “Fruit Industry Pest Management, FQPA, and Economic Considerations,” The Great Lakes Fruit Growers News, May 1998. Ricks, Donald, Jerome Hull, and Myron Kelsey, Impact on the Apple Industry of Reduced Pesticide Usage, Michigan State University, Department of Agricultural Economics, Staff Paper No. 93-46, March, 1993. Sorensen, Kenneth A., et al., The Importance of Pesticides and Other Pest Management Practices in U.S. Strawberry Production, USDA National Agricultural Pesticide Impact Assessment Program, Document No. 1CA-97, 1997. Statewide Integrated Pest Management Program, University of California, www.ipm.ucdavis.edu University of Georgia, “Summary of Losses from Insect Damage and Costs of Control in Georgia-,” Available at: http://www.ent.uga.edu/IPM/s102/s102.htm Waldbauer, Gilbert, Insights from Insects: What Bad Bugs Can Teach U.S., Prometheus Books, Amherst, NY, 2005.
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