Geography Elective (Combined)

WRITTEN BY A VICTORIAN

Geography Elective (Combined) The Republished 2012 Edition Lim Ting Jie - VS Class of 2011

2012

THE

AUTHOR WAS TAUGHT BY

MISS RAKSHA

CHAPTER 1: NATURAL VEGETATION Biome profile (Rainforest, Monsoon and Coniferous) Tropical monsoon forest Temperature coniferous forest

Tropical equatorial rainforest Dense and abundant vegetation growth, very luxuriant 30 m - 50 m Made up of tallest trees 

To reach out for sunlight

V

Fewer non-parastic plants

Prevents sunlight from reaching forest floor

Few non-parastic plants 5 m - 6 m Tree saplings and woody plants 0 m - 5 m Sparse Little sunlight reaches the vegeta- floor as emergent and canopy tion  areas spread out like umbrellas

U. S S U. G

U.S

-

Evergeen and found close together 

To withstand strong winds

Uniform height and conical shaped 

Sways instead of toppling

Little undergrowth 

0 m - 5 m Poorly leeched soils Little sunlight reaches floor Thin layer of leaf litter Needle-shaped leaves do not favour fast decomposition

0 m - 6 m Dense vegetation, more undergrowth, shed leaves

Sunlight able to reach the ground when trees

Tropical equatorial rainforest

Understorey

Lianas (thick woody vines, up to 90m), Epiphytes (grows on trees for support, rainwater and decaying leaves land on for supply of water and nutrients), Raflessia (parasitic, competes with host tree, causing the death of the tree) Shrubs, ferns and small young trees

Undergrowth

Small plants, ferns, fungi, saprophytes, decaying leaves

Canopy

C

6 m - 15 m

Smaller trees with narrow crowns

Dense and abundant in coniferous trees

V

20 m - 30 m

C

6 m - 15 m

Examples

V

E

15 m - 30 m Continuous and interlocking 

Less dense than rainforest, more open, less luxuriant 25 m - 30 m

U.G

E

U.G

Tropical monsoon forest

Temperature coniferous forest

Teak, sandalwood and sal

-

Thick shrubs, bamboo (thickets), grasses and herbs

Mosses and lichens

Diversity of plant species

Useful species

Tropical equatorial rainforest

Tropical monsoon

Tropical mangrove

Temperate coniferous

Largest diversity of plant species in all biomes

Mostly hardwoods

Made up of halophytes (salt-tolerant plants)

Softwood found in the trees, which grow in pure stands

Keruing, Kapur, Chengal, Meranti Making furniture

Summary

Large variety of plants due to high year round temperatures and rainfall, 750

Reasons

For fuelwood

For making incense

Fewer species due to inconsistent rainfall, 200

species/ha

Extremely dense and abundant

Abundant but less dense than tropical rainforest during dry season

Mostly similar to tropical rainforest during wet season

High temperatures and rainfall

Crowns do not interlock to form a continuous canopy, denser undergrowth

More abundant leaves

Plants lose/shed their leaves

Density

Sandalwood

Sparse during dry season

species of trees and 1500 of plants/ha

Sal

AviSonSea Rhizo- Brucenn nerahibisphora geria ia tia cus ConsMeFiretruction Charcoal dicine wood materials

Nipah palm

Fir

Food

Paper

Plants have to be adapted to growing in salt water

Dense and luxuriant

High temperatures and rainfall

Canopy competes continuously for sunlight resulting in sparse undergrowth

Spruce

Pulp

Matches

Pine Furniture

Chem . products

Plants have to be adapted to low temperatures and precipitation,

1-3 species/area

Not dense

Low temperatures and precipitation

Avi.

Characteristics similar to equatorial climate

Bruguiera

Rhizophora

Absorb salt and store them in old leaves Sonneratia

Avicennia

To regulate the amount of salt in the tree as they grow in salt water

Evergreen

High constant rainfall through -out the year

No shedding of leaves Constant rainfall, loss of water need not be highly reduced

Large and broad

Waxy with drip tips

To maximise surface area for photosynthesis

To allow rainwater to drain off easily to prevent bacteria from growing on them (as high temperatures promote growth of bacteria)

RhizoColourful and sweet smelling, present all phora year round Colourful Waves/ Fruits bright red currents elongated, lantern carry Still air at canopy area do not allow shape - sharp tips buoyant Traits - Anchor pollination to be carried out by wind and Attract fruits to and Pros can only rely on insects for pollination new insects: for firmly in places to pollination muddy soil and animals for dispersal Flowers and fruits

Tropical monsoon Deciduous (shed leaves during dry season)

Bamboo plant have narrow leaves during dry season

To minimise loss of water through transpiration

To minimise of loss water through transpiration due to lack of water during dry season

Brugeria

They are leafless during this period

To reduce loss due to transpiration

The ground will be frozen and little water available

Male

Female

Produce pollen

Produce seeds (dispersed by wind or animals)

Protect the seeds from the cold Thick and coarse Protects trunk from heat and dryness during dry season

Withstand extreme heat from natural forest fires

Located around the middle of trunks Sunlight better able to reach the lower parts of the forest

Thick barks

Flexible branches

Conical shape (some)

Snow can slide off easily preventing breakage

Withstand strong winds by swaying

No need for protection against cold or dry conditions

Emergent and canopy layers branches spread out like umbrellas to get maximum sunlight

Store water during winter

Protect from long cold winters

Pros

Thin and smooth barks

Branches found only on the top one-third of the trunks

Needlelike

Bear cones

Usually only present during dry season

take root

Bark and branches

Temperate coniferous

So that photosynthesis can occur all the time

Reasons

Tropical equatorial rainforest

Mostly evergreen

Leaves

Secrete excess salt

Tropical mangrove

Roots

Pros

Tropical equatorial rainforest Shallow and Buttress spread roots widely present Roots do not need to reach deep into soil for water and nutrients

Tropical monsoon Deep roots

Tropical mangrove Aerial roots / Pnuematophores (exposed during low tide) Avicennia

To support the great weight of the trees

To tap water sources deep under the ground

Sonneratia

Peg-like, Pencil-like, able thick base to grow 30m high Exposed during low tide and able take in oxygen from the air during this period

Temperature coniferous

Prop / Stilt roots

Kneed roots

Rhizophora

Brugeria

To anchor trees firmly in muddy soil, protecting coastal areas from strong waves

To provide firm support on soft soil

Shallow and spreading roots

To absorb water easily from soil surface when snow melts, as during winter, snow falls instead of rain

Roots are specially adapted to oxygen-deprived soil Reasons

Leaf litter decomposes and humus form to supply nutrients to the topsoil

Rainfall is not regular throughout the year

The trees grow on soft and waterlogged soil that lacks oxygen

Precipitation is low throughout the year, resulting in little water in the ground

Biome profile (Mangrove)

Soil stability Density of leaves Distance from sea

Coastal zone Avicennia and Sonneratia Aerial roots / Pnuematophores

 Shore 

Zone Species of trees Types of roots Tolerance in salt water Sanility Inundation (water cover)

Middle zone Rhizophora Prop / stilt roots Increases

Increases

Inland zone Bruguiera Knee-like roots

Functions of forests

Rnfst Mnsn Mngr Cnfs

Habitat for flora and fauna

Habitat for people

Water treatment

Home to more than half the species in the world

About 60 million people live in tropical rainforests of SA, SEA & Africa

Mangrove forests process waste materials like dead animals and human waste carried by water

Tigers and rare Hunter animals gatherers  Tropical  Korubu tribe rainin Amazon forest hunts wild in Peninanimals sular  Gathers Malayleaves for sia subsis-tence Grizzly Shifting bears cultivators  Coni Grow crops ferous on forest forests land cleared of by burning North America

 Roots of mangrove trees help trap waste materials and filter water before it flows into sea  Soil contains bacteria that can break down biodegradable waste, converting into nutrients for themselves  Some countries channel sewage portions to mangrove forests to treat waste

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Green lungs of the Earth

Medical uses

Water catchment

Forests prevent global temperatures from rising

Some plants in forests have medicinal value, which some has yet to be fully explored

Enable water to be collected, stored and maintained

Protecting coasts

Preventing floods

Mangroves are able to protect coastal areas

Roots reduce chance of the river overflowing banks

Quality maintenance  Leaves and branches  Acts as a  Soil During Sarawak intercept rain falling on barrier erosion photosyn Calophyllum has a ground surface from is slower thesis compound that strong  Soil  Less surface  Forests take may be able to  Less waves makes runoff  More in carbon prevent fullsoil and the river groundwater dioxide, a blown AIDS parstorms bed  Rivers and greenhouse Brazillian ticles  In 2004 shallower reservoirs gas produced rainforest are Indian  Ability  Vegetation by humans  Quinine from wash Tsunami , of the transpires to  Release Cinchona in can ed it proriver to release water oxygen, be used to treat into tected contain vapour into replenishing malaria nearcoasts of the the oxygen supply Coniferous forests by Southern water is atmosphere, This helps  Cough syrup rivers India inencouraging regulate from barks of and from creased cloud temperature Eastern white reser destrucwith formation and on Earth Pine trees -viors tion roots rain

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Quantity maintenance

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Functions of forests Research and education

Chemicals

Food

Recreation

Timber

New medicines and varieties of crops developed

Some useful chemicals are extracted from forests

Forests also provide people with food (e.g. Borneo:)

Provides ecotourism to many city-dwellers

Timber can be used to make furniture and paper and construct buildings

New medicine and crops  Banana, coffee and cocoa are cultivated for food, new ones are constantly discovered Effect on ecosystems on life  Scientists study interactions between forest, animals and plants like the effect of weather

Mangrove trees in East Africa  Tannin from Rhizophora  treat leather  Tree sap  Black dyes Pine and fir trees  Resin  Wood varnish and ointments

Sago from sago palm  High in starch concentration Edible ferns  Midin Forests provide the perfect location for animal hunting  Wild deer for meat

 Rafting, hiking and birdwatching is engaged so that the environment is not harmed  Otherwise, tourists entering the forests have to follow rules and regulations  Tamam Negara in Malaysia is promoted as ecotourism to gain income while protecting the forest

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Rnfst Mnsn Mngr Cnfs

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Tropical forests  Chengal and meranti trees  Rattan for furniture and baskets Coniferous forests  Pine trees Mangrove forests  Leaves of Nipah palm can be made into thatched roofs Monsoon forests  Bamboo for buildings

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Fuelwood and charcoal Wood and charcoal is used for cooking and heating for 2 billion people in the world  Less developed countries like Asia and Africa gather wood from forests as fuel  Rhizophora is being cut down to make charcoal in the Matang Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia

 

Causes of deforestation Forest fires

( Forest fire control) Demand for agricultural landuse

Most of the forest fires are deliberately set up by people  Plantation companies start forest fires to clear large areas of rainforest for growing oil palm Some of the fires are also due to dry weather  Vegetation debris that are left on the forest floor like branches and twigs catch fire easily Causes increase in demand for land which result in population pressure in area near forests  New settlers near forests permanently clear forests to grow crops in small holdings  Small farms such as rice and cocoa are grown for own use, for sale and profit

Caused deforestation of more than 23750 km2 of Kalimantan between 1997 and 1998 Indonesian government population programme eases overcrowding in islands like Java and Sumatra

Causes of deforestation As population increases and settlements become crowded, more land is cleared for housing  People start moving from rural settlements to urban settlements to live and work due to more opportunities for employment  Rainforests are cleared

Growth of settlements

Improved transport networks

Roads and railway tracks are constructed to link settlements in Kalimantan  Allow access to previously remote forested areas in Kalimantan  Lengths of forest trees had to be cut down to clear the path Logging (timber being cut down and sold)  Pace of logging is increased by timber companies to ensure that the processing facilities are fully utlitised Mining (extraction of gold, silver and copper underneath the forests)  Vegetation has to be cleared to expose the ground underneath  A large hole has to be created, exposing loose soil

Growth of industries

( Logging control)

Balkapapan in East Kalimantan is a business centre for many national companies dealing with mining and oil extraction and this reduced the are from 98.7 km2 to 35 km2 in one year Trans-Kalimantan Highway between Balikpapan and Banjarmasin is 230 kilometres long and cuts through rainforests. This has made it easier for people to destroy more forest areas.   

1656 km2 of forest is removed West Kalimantan annually A mining company was awarded a contract to mine 1290 km of the rainforest since 1980. Large expanse has been cleared.

Problems caused by deforestation Loss in biomass /diversity (

Af/reforestation)

Changes in the nutrient cycle Vast changes in water

      

Stored energy of the organisms represents the total amount of food available on Earth Ability of the rainforests to support various plant and animal life is reduced as the food chain is adversely affected.  Survival of herbivores and carnivores will be threatened due to the loss of plant food sources.  Biodiversity of plants and animals in the Kalimantan forests are reduced Less leaf litter  Lack of vegetation cover  Roots are absent Less decomposed  No protective cover for soil  Absorption of rain reduced material  Soil exposed to rain and erosion  Soils are leached  topsoil becomes Slower fertility rate  Loss of soil nutrient infertile  cannot support growth Droughts - Less transpiration  Cloud formation is reduced  Rainfall is lowered Floods - Roots are not present  Soil is loose  Eroded and goes into rivers  Decrease river capacity Muddy waters - Increased amounts of soil  Increased sediment level of rivers  Unclean waters Acidity of rivers - Increased amounts of soil  Increased sediment level of rivers  Water becomes more acidic  Inversely affects aquatic life in the rivers  Less fish catch by fishermen  

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Extinction of species in the Kalimantan may result. The Proboscis monkey in the Kalimantan rainforest is being endangered. Little of original vegetation can be replaced back and cleared land is unsuitable for cultivation Droughts have been caused during 1997-98 Severe floods in 2001 in Samarinda and Balikpapaen

Problems caused by deforestation Air pollution

Dust and smoke released during clearance of trees by burning, causing air pollution If more severe, the particles were be suspended in air and be blown by strong winds  Haze found in other areas like Southeast Asia from Central Kalimantan, many suffered from eye, nose and throat irritations

Tropical Rainforests Large and broad To maximise surface area for photosynthesis Waxy with drip tips To allow rainwater to drain off easily to prevent bacteria from growing on them Branches found only on the top onethird of the trunks Emergent and canopy layers branches spread to get maximum sunlight Colourful and sweet smelling fruits To use insects for pollination and animals for dispersal Roots shallow and spread widely, buttress roots present To support the great weight of the trees

Summary of the adaptations of forests Tropical Monsoon Forests Mangrove Forests Deep roots Leaves able To tap water sources deep under the secrete or store ground as rainfall is not regular throughout excess salt the year Regulate the amount Thick and coarse of salt in the tree Protects trunk from heat and dryness as they grow in salt during dry season and withstand extreme water heat from natural forest fires Flowers are Waxy with drip tips generally colourful To allow rainwater to drain off easily to To attract insects prevent bacteria from growing on them to pollinate flowers Deciduous (shed leaves during dry season) Specially adapted To minimise loss of water through roots transpiration Like aerial, prop and Bamboo plant have narrow leaves kneed roots to grow To minimise of loss water through on soft and transpiration due to lack of water during waterlogged soil dry season that lacks oxygen

Flights had to cancelled to the Southeast Asian region due to poor visibility in 1997

Coniferous Forests Needle-like To reduce loss due to transpiration Leaves able to store water The ground will be frozen and little water available during winter Flowers bear cones Protect the seeds from cold Thick barks Protect from long cold winters Flexible branches Snow can slide off easily preventing breakage Mostly conical shaped Withstand strong winds by swaying Shallow, spreading roots To absorb water easily from soil surface when snow melts, as during winter, snow falls instead of rain

Nutrient cycle dissolved in rainfall from atmosphere surface runoff leaching weathered from rocks

   

LITTER

decomposes

nutrient transfer to SOIL

tissue fallout



plant uptake



BIOMASS

Nutrient cycle characteristics in forests Equatorial rainforest

Largest store of mineral nutrients

Biomass Total mass of living organisms, mainly plant tissues

Tall, dense and rapid vegetation growth High annual temperature, Year long with high and even rainfall growing season

Limited despite continuous fall of leaves

Litter Total amount of organic matter (e.g. humus and leaf litter in soil) Soil Naturally occurring unconsolidated or loose covering Earth’s surface

Composed of several layers of plant species

Hence rapid decomposition of dead vegetation Hot and wet climate provides ideal environment for bacterial action

Rich in nutrients but easily leeched and washed by runoff

Temperate Coniferous forest Relatively low (unsorted) Needle-like leaves Littler undergrowth One layer of coniferous Limited variety of species trees only

Largest store of mineral nutrients

Contains few nutrients (unsorted)

Soil has to rely on replacement of nutrients from chemical and biological weathering of the bedrock

Lost through leeching and surface runoff

Litter content is rapidly reduced

Low fertility potential of podsol soil of tiaga

Tropical Rainforests 1. Habitat for flora and fauna 2. Habitat for people 3. Green lungs of the Earth 4. Medical uses 5. Water catchment 6. Preventing floods 7. Research and education 8. Food 9. Re-creation 10. Timber 11. Fuelwood & charcoal

Summary of the functions of forests Tropical Monsoon Forests Mangrove Forests 1. Research and education 2. Chemicals 3. Food 1. Water treatment 4. Recreation 2. Green lungs of the Earth 5.Timber 3. Water catchment 6.Fuelwood and charcoal 4. Protecting coasts 7. Habitat for flora and fauna 5. Preventing floods 8. Habitat for people 6. Research and education 9. Green lungs of the Earth 7. Timber 10. Water catchment 11. Preventing floods

Low temp restrict the rate of chemical weathering of parent rock, slow replacement rate Needle-like cuticles discourage decomposers and breakdown of leaf litter to humus

Coniferous Forests

1. Habitat for flora and fauna 2. Green lungs of Earth 3. Medical uses 4. Research and education 5. Chemicals 6. Recreation 7. Timber

Measures to reduce deforestation  Forest fire control

 

Afforestation and reforestation

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Logging control



Implement policies to make it illegal to clear forests by burning Conduct annual forest fire awareness campaigns Plant trees on area not originally covered with forests Plant trees in formerly forested area cleared by logging Careful management of forests with the use of law enforcement, education and research programmes Severe penalties such as fines and imprisonment are enforced for irresponsible timber companies for illegal logging

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Indonesian government introduced measures to to monitor forest fires through forest fire campaigns in 1996 and National Fire management plan in 1999 Afforestation is carried out on agricultural lands located on fringes of villages and existing forests MOF set out to restore 900 000 hectares of forests annually in Kalimantan through the Forests and Land Restoration Initiative with local people involved in the replanting of trees

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However, rates of the forests being replanted are slower than the forest being cleared as the incentives may not be attractive enough for the people to participate in the projects 

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Ministry of Forestry (MOF) has arranged for education and research programmes for timber companies Selective cutting is encouraged so that much of the forest is undisturbed

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 Conservation

Careful use of resources like forests to protect them from destruction

 

MOF sets aside nature reserves like the Betung Kerihum Nature Reserve (Heart of Borneo) WWF works closely with Kalimantan, Brunei and Malaysia to protect the reserve

However, some plantation companies continue to burn for profit as it is the cheapest way to clear land Some local people are also too used to their traditional farming methods inherited from the past



However, it is difficult to monitor logging and detect illegal logging activities due to the lack of manpower and remoteness of the forest Some places has allowed illegal logging to go undetected Also, trees selectively removed may also affect un-removed trees However, it is difficult to monitor logging and detect illegal logging activities due to the lack of manpower and remoteness of the forest Treasure Island at Risk reported the presence of illegal logging in 2005

TOPIC 2: RIVERS 1. River terminology Drainage basin Watershed Channelisation Wetted perimeter

the land area drained by the main river and its tributaries the imaginary line acting as a boundary separating one drainage basin from the next one. the process of changing the natural course of a river to make it flow in a specific path so as to reduce possibility of flooding. the perimeter of river channel in contact with water

2. The hydrologic cycle map

Refer to Annex A 3. Factors affecting river energy River velocity Channel shape



Rivers with the same cross-sectional area but with different shapes have different velocities

The larger the wetted perimeter, the greater the friction, the lower the erosion, the slower the speed Channel  Channel slope refers to the steepness or gradient of the the channel slope  The steeper the slope (the higher the course), the greater the velocity of the river  Three common types of patterns are the straight pattern, the meandering pattern Channel and the braided pattern pattern  The lower the amount of friction, the faster the flow of water in the river  Channel is uneven with items like boulders and vegetation Channel  These items increase the amount of friction, thus decreases the velocity of the roughness water in the river River volume Size of  Larger drainage basins have generally more tributaries that increase the volume of drainage water in the main river basin  The larger the drainage basin, the greater the discharge  Higher temperatures increase evapotranspiration rates and result in a lower discharge in the river Climate  Higher precipitation result in more volume of water in the river to cause a higher discharge in the river  More permeability of rocks increases the infiltration of water into the ground and reduces surface runoff Permeability  Places with low permeability include concrete pavements in urban areas and places of rocks with asphalt roots  When discharge exceeds river capacity, flooding occurs Presence of  Vegetation intercepts and absorbs rainwater when it rains, increasing the vegetation infiltration of water and reducing surface runoff Elements of a hydrograph The graph of the amount of river discharge against time during a specific Hydrograph stormy period Rising and falling limb The gradient of the discharge increase from start of storm to peak of storm Lag time The time taken for the storm to reach the peak of the storm from the start Peak discharge The greatest discharge during any period of the storm 

4. Erosion, depositional and transport methods a. Transport (TS3) Traction Saltation Suspension Solution

involves rolling and sliding of large particles like boulders along river bed moves bedload and small materials like pebbles downstream by bouncing transport of silt, clay, sand and other particles without the touching the river bed chemical action of river water in dissolving soluble rocks (limestone/CaCO3)

b. Erosion (CASH by vertical or lateral erosion) wearing down of a river bed and banks by grinding action of rock fragments carried by the river load carried by river is being broken as rocks collide with each other, becoming smoother and rounder in the process chemical action of river water in dissolving soluble rocks (limestone/CaCO3) loosening, breaking, dragging, tearing away and removing of rock particles from the river bed and banks by the sheer force of running water

Corrasion Attrition Solution Hydraulic action

c. Deposition

Why

   

When

Where

  

At the lower course, river velocity is low and energy level falls. The river is unable to transport its load and it will be dropped and deposited. Larger particles are dropped first as they require more energy to be transported When there is a decrease in river velocity, when floodwaters recede, or when a river enters a sea or reservoir or lake, there will be a significant drop in river energy, causing the river to lose its ability to transport its load. At the inner bend (convex bank) of a meander (slip-off slope) Floodplain when floodwaters recede At the river mouth where a delta is located

5. Landforms on rivers a. Erosional

Waterfall

Plunge pool

Gorge (it is a deep, narrow and valley with steep, almost vertical sides)

rocks of different resistance  great force erode less resistant rocks faster  hydraulic action (impact of water) change in gradient  abrasion (rocks swirling at the base) sudden fall in height  deepening the depth of the waterfall further hydraulic action  excavated, enlarged and deepened by hydraulic action and abrasion results in a  turbulent water at base of water deep depression known  rock particles swirl about as a plunge pool  further erodes the depression  river flows  flows to the edge of the cap rock of limestone through less  water increases velocity a excavates a plunge pool at the bottom resistant rocks  armed with rock debris  vertical erosion  backsplash at base of waterfall is faster than  undercuts cliff face of less resistant sand and shale the wearing  erosion of the cliff face away of the  overhanging cap rock loses support and collapses sides of the  continuation of the process cause the waterfall to retreat valley and form a deep, narrow and long valley known as a gorge     

b. Erosional and depositional

Meanders (loops in the course of a river)

River cliffs and slip off slopes

 Areas of regular-spaced deeper water  pools and shallower water riffles  Less friction in pools   Greater velocity and erosive power   More friction in riffles   Lower velocity and more deposition   Difference in velocities across channel  Unequal pressure and energy distribution  Currents in a river bank moves in a corkscrew manner, repeating a series of rotations  Current from outer concave bank descends downwards  Undercuts and erodes materials  Continuous erosion causes some eroded materials are slumped down a river, forming a river cliff on the concave bank.

Continuous erosion and deposition accentuate Slight bends of a river Further erosion and deposition Bends are more pronounced Loops known as meanders form  Some eroded materials are also carried along the bed up to inner convex bank  Deposited there  Continuous deposition makes the convex bank shallow  Resultant slack water encourages further deposition  A gently-sloping slip-off slope is built up

c. Depositional Floodplains (a wide low-lying plain found on both sides of a

and levees (natural river)

embankments found along river banks)

 Heavy rain  Amount of water will be more than the river capacity  Water overflows its banks  Floods surrounding areas  Once out of the channel, there will be more friction 

Ox-bow lakes (horse-shoe shaped lake)

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Delta (a flat

alluvial platform found a a river mouth nearing a sea)

   

 Velocity is reduced and energy decreases  Deposition  Larger, coarser and heavier materials are deposited at river banks and accumulate to form raised embankments (levees)  Smaller, finer and lighter materials are deposited further away from the river banks and accumulate to form the floodplain  Water now flows straight through the Continuous erosion of concave bank straighter river channel and deposition of the convex bank  Instead of the cut-off abandoned Pronounced meander formed meander loop Two neighbouring banks get closer  Deposits start to build up at both ends Narrow neck of land formed of cut-off Continued lateral erosion eventually  Seals it off from the main channel erodes the narrow neck of land  Cut-off becomes an ox-bow lake Outer banks merge  Stabilised by vegetation or dried up River mixes with water upon entering sea  Mass of alluvium built up from sea River velocity decreases and river loses bed and rises above the water energy forming extensive deposits deltas Deposits alluvium load of gravel, sand,  A flat alluvium platform is silt and clay formed and obstructs the flow of The clay consolidates with salt water and water sinks to the bottom  Water is forced to find another When tidal currents are not strong way around and hence overflows enough banks into distributaries And when coastal waters are shallow  Levees built up enough  Stabilised by vegetation

6. Channel management strategies (pros, examples, cons) Strategy i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Removes meanders

Description

Example

Reduces length Increase river velocity Realignment Flow away from an area more quickly (straightening Wash away sediments which have accumulated on the river of the river bed channel) vi. Deepens the channel vii. Channel capacity is increased to hold more water viii. Localised flooding is minimised i. Widening and deepening of river channel ii. Increases channel’s ability to hold water Reiii. Increases amount of surface runoff as more surface sectioning runoff can enter without flooding (widening and iv. Soil of river banks can be replaced with cement and granite deepening of the river v. Less friction between water, river bed and banks channel) vi. Increase rate of water flow away from a section of the river i. Built along river channel Gabions and ii. Divert flow of water to centre revetments iii. Protects banks from being eroded by force of running water iv. Reduces amount of sediment flow into the river

Vegetation planting and clearance

Disadvantage

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Resectioning

Costly and labour intensive

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Requires technological know-how Deters the growth of marine life like corals Aesthetically unpleasant and affect tourism Sediments may accumulate behind these structures and may lead to flooding, have to be maintained regularly May add stress to the banks and causes the banks to collapse

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Singapore River has been extensively altered by widening and deepening the channels through dredging. This is an effective long-term measure. Revetments built in Jamuna and Megna Rivers in Bangladesh. Embankments of the Mekong River stabilised with mangroves planted along river by a joint initiative by Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and Thailand.

Planting vegetation along river More roots of trees present Hold soil together firmly Improves stability of channel Minimal destruction to natural habitats

Strategy Realignment

For example, the Mississippi River in the USA has been shortened to up to 240km to reduce the threat of flooding.

Gabions and revetments

Vegetation planting Building of and clearance dykes





   

Disadvantage

Strategy Realignment

Resectioning

Gabions and revetments

Vegetation planting Building of and clearance dykes

Woody debris can become erosion agents and encourage flooding Continual build-up of sediments on river bed makes channel shallower and water levels to raise higher over the years Sediments have to be regularly dug up from the bed

  

7. Summarised pros and cons of dams (refer to Geography file) Pros Hydroelectric Power Generation Domestic Water Supply Flood Control Transport and economic value Recreation

Cons Silting Salanisation Destruction of habitats Resettlement of people Spread of diseases Destruction of delta downstream Water pollution

Annex A

1 2 Interception

Transpiration by plants

1

3 4

Reduces the amount of Water is taken through the roots to reduce volume of river as less water enters the river

water that reaches the river

Inputs

Outputs

Precipitation

1. River runoff

Stores and flows

2. Evaporation

1. Return flow

3. Transpiration

2. Interception 3. Surface water storage 4. Infiltration 5. Soil water storage 6. Percolation 7. Groundwater storage 8. Groundwater flow

TOPIC 5: COASTS 1. Wave terminology Crest Trough Wave height Wave length

The highest part of a wave formed between two troughs The lowest part of a wave formed between two crests The vertical distance between the wave crest and wave trough Horizontal distance between two wave crests or troughs

2. Coast profiles terms

offshore (not visible

foreshore (zone of contact

backshore (exposed all

even during low tides)

between sea and land)

the time)

high tide level   low tide level

sand

coastline

shoreline

cliff

rocks

sea 3. Factors affecting wave energy

Duration of wind Speed of wind

 Fetch    Depth of sea 

Wind effects  The longer the wind blows, the larger the waves will be.  Since waves are formed as a result of high wind velocities across the surface of the water they are proportionate.  The higher the wind speed, the bigger the waves. Sea effects It refers to the expanse of sea that a wave travels through before reaching land. A larger fetch will allow the wave to gain more energy. Water particles in a wave are in a circular motion. A deeper sea would mean that the particles are able to move more freely as compared to shallow sea, where a lot of friction is encountered. Hence the deeper the sea, the less friction, the greater the size of the waves, and the greater the wave energy.

4. Erosion, depositional and transport methods a. Transport

Longshore drift (refers to the movement of sediments parallel to the coast by the action of waves reaching the coast at an angle)

     

Winds usually travel towards the coast at an angle. Prevailing winds cause the waves to hit the coast at an oblique angle. When the waves reach the beach, the waves break and topple over, causing surf containing sediments to run up the beach as swash. The surf then runs back down the beach as backwash perpendicular to the coast due to the influence of gravity. The sediments in the backwash are later being carried by a second swash. This continuous motion of swash and backwash result in transport of sediments in a zig-zag fashion by longshore currents.

b. Erosion (W.CASH)  Wave refraction

 

Corrasion

 Attrition   

Solution

 Hydraulic action

 

Wave refraction occurs when waves approach an irregular coastline in a parallel fashion. Wave energy is concentrated on promontories such as headlands, erosion occurs. Waves and rock debris lash against the base of cliffs, scouring and undercutting the rocks. Rock particles carried in the water knock against one another, reducing one another in size. The load is hence more rounded, evident from beach deposits. Rain water is a weak acid, and may be further acidified with acid rain. When it reacts with limestone containing calcium carbonate, it gradually weakens the whole rock structure, causing it to disintegrate. When waves surge into cracks and joints in rocks, air is trapped in the rocks and would be temporarily compressed. When the waves leaves the rocks, there would be a sudden expansion of the trapped air, exerting a force on the rocks. Alternate contraction and expansion weakens the structure of the rock overall, resulting in the disintegration of the rock.

c. Deposition

Where

 Gentle waves  Heavy load  Erosion opposing factors  *Indented coastline

Indented coastline Why

Gently sloping shorelines Source of beach sediments

   

Presence of vegetation Sheltered, less windy coast *Gently sloping shorelines *Source of beach sediments (e.g. headlands)

 Wave refraction occurs  Waves travel a larger distance to the bay compared to the headlands  Dissipated wave energy encounters more friction and diverges at the beach as they spread  Swash is stronger than backwash  More deposition than erosion  More active erosion occurs at the headlands

5. Landforms at coasts Landform

Sea cliff

Wave cut platform

Method of production  When waves repeatedly pound against a rocky coast, rocks are weakened to form lines of weaknesses in the rock face  A notch forms  As a cliff continues to be eroded by waves, it retreats inland

 Further eroded to form a sea cave  The overhanging part of the cave eventually collapses with repeated pounding  A cliff is formed  Over time, a flat or gently sloping surface known as a wave cut platform is formed

Landform Headland

Bay

Beach

Berm

Method of production  When waves approach coasts of differing alternating resistance, the less resistant rocks are eroded at a faster rate than the more resistant rocks

 Rocks of different resistance builds  Materials eroded form headlands up at headlands and bays together with materials carried by the  Wave refraction at the headlands waves get deposited and accumulate at the bay cause wave energy to be dissipated at the bay  Over time, a beach forms  As constructive waves run up the  Coarser heaver materials are hurled beach slope, it loses energy further up the beach slope and deposited  Load is deposited there as the weaker backwash does not  Swash is stronger than backwash have the energy to remove them, forming  More materials deposited then the berm removed  Finer lighter materials are carried  During a storm, waves are stronger seawards by the backwash and deposited and beach sorting occurs near the water’s edge

Longshore drift

Spit

Tombolo

Notch

Cave Wave cut platform

 Differing rates of erosion of rocks produce an uneven coastline  Less resistant areas of rocks curve inwards to form bays  More resistant areas of rocks protrude out from the coastline to form headlands

 Prevailing winds  Waves to hit the coast at an oblique angle  Waves breaking obliquely at the shore move materials  Along the shore in a zigzag manner known as longshore drift...  Due to backwash and swash (more on 4a)

Spit formation

 Abrupt change in the coastline causes the longshore drift to lose energy due to shallower waters

 Sediments are deposited on the sea floor developing an under water ridge  Over time, they extend further  Currents are not strong enough to wash the deposits away  Lie undisturbed

Hooking

 The second most dominant pushes the tip landwards to give it its hooked appearance  When the wind slackens, the spit continues to extend.  The strong current carries the sediments out to sea and prevents the spit from extending further.  Strong winds again pushes the end of the spit inwards to give its second hook

Tombolo formation

 When an extension of a spit joins an offshore island to the mainland, and tombolo is formed

 When waves have short wavelength and large  The waves attack lines of wave height, they form destructive waves weaknesses by CSH (no A)  Waves attack rocks of varying resistance by C, [elaborate each]. A, S and H along an exposed or uneven coast.  Waves continually attack  Bays and headlands form these weak rock joints  Waves concentrate their energy on headlands  A notch is formed at the  Increased wave erosion form a cliffed headland base of the headland cliff  Prolonged wave action  The notch is gradually enlarged, forming a sea cave  Over time further wave erosion  As the steep cliff retreats due to continued along the cave may cause its roof erosion, undercutting the base of the cliff to collapse forming a steep cliff  A gently-sloping land strewn with eroded face rocks called a wave cut platform develops.

Landform Arch

Stack Stump

Method of production  The cave and wave up  When the cave undercuts the base fully to the platform is slowly enlarged other side of the headland, it cuts through the and lengthened headland, forming an arch  As the sides of the arch are being eroded by  An isolated pillar of rock called wind and wave forces, the arch loses its a stack is left behind and support and collapses to the wave cut platform separated from the headland  Continual erosion by strong winds and  This stump is only revealed at destructive waves reduces the stack to a stump low tide and covered at high tide

6. Waves What happens as waves hit the

 

shore? 1) Waves approach the shore 2) Water depth generally decreases 3) Friction with seabed increases

Waves hitting a straight shore

4) Circular motion of waves is retarded



5) Waves slowed down 6) Length decreases 7) Crests bunch up 8) Wave height and steepness increases 9) Top of wave topples over 10) Surf runs up the beach as swash

Waves hitting an irregular shore

11) Percolates into the beach 12) Runs back down as less strong backwash

Energy Coastal waves Coastal process Ability Offshore Frequency Coast approach Association

   

No indentation Waves hit the shore at an oblique angle in direction of the wind Friction near the coast Waves get shallower Retards the speed of waves Waves break almost parallel to shore (longshore current) Transport of sediments increase

Headland  Waves reach headland first before entering bay  Wave refracted at headland concentrates energy there  More intensive erosive power of C, A, S and H Bay  When waves move towards the bay, it tends to curve away across the bay area  Energy is dispersed  Eroded material at the headland is deposited at the boy area

Constructive waves

Destructive waves

Low, resulting in low flat waves

High

Swash more powerful than backwash

Backwash more powerful than swash, surf pounds on sand but does not run far up the beach

Deposition

Erosion

Able to push material up the beach to form a berm at the top of the beach Low wave length and height Low (6-8 per minute)

Able to dig out material and carry it out offshore High wave length and height High (>10 per minute)

Gentle surging waves

Steep plunging waves

Gently sloping coasts

Steep sloping coasts

7. Coastal protection strategies Type

Strategy

Description

Example

Seawalls

i. Wall made of concrete built in front of a coast ii. Absorbs energy of the waves iii. Protects the coast against strong waves, especially during storms

Build at long stretches of coasts in England to reduce rate of erosion of land

Breakwaters

i. Granite materials acting as breakwaters are placed off and parallel to the coast ii. Creates a zone of shallow water between the coast and itself iii. Breaks the waves before it reaches the coast iv. Reduces wave energy

Singapore beaches like the East Coast Park and Siloso beach at Sentosa

Hard

Disadvantage  Waves are redirected downwards to the base of the seawall as waves break  Strong backwash wears away the base, weakening and collapsing it.  Expensive, S$3 million per kilometre  Unable to provide complete protection as some areas are still left unprotected  Expensive, each breakwater is S$1 million 

Groynes

Gabions

Stabilising coastal dunes

Soft

(Ridge of sand piled up by wind usually extending many kilometers and heights to 100 metres)

Planting mangroves on the shore

i. Low wall built perpendicular to the coast ii. Prevents materials from being transported away by longshore drift iii. As sediments accumulate at the side of the groyne i. Wire cages containing small rocks to form a wall ii. Protects the coast against erosion i. Ridge of sand piled up by wind ii. Provides protection to human property iii. Provides a habitat for many animals iv. Plantation of vegetation along coasts v. Roots trap and bind sand together, preventing sand from being blown inland i. They have prop roots that anchor trees firmly in the muddy soil ii. Bind loose soil and protect it from erosion iii. 2004 Tsunami showed that it helps

Groynes built at Sussex in the United Kingdom



 Chichester Harbour in the United Kingdom



 

Omaha Beach in New Zealand Marram grass

 

2005 Malaysian  government launched project to protect  4800 km of its coastline

The beach will not be replenished by materials carried by longshore drift Beach further down the coast may be eroded away Spoils the natural beauty of a coastal environment Can be easily destroyed by powerful waves during storms Wires rust easily Property development and recreational activities can damage the coasts Causes the sand to be easily blown inland Can easily cover nearby roads, farms and buildings Require cooperation of the people in the local area Have to be mindful not to let animals like goats enter the plantations

Type

Strategy i. Beach nourishment

ii.

i.

Soft Encouraging growth of coral reefs

ii. iii. iv.

Description Large amounts of sand are added to a beach that is being eroded When longshore drift removes sand from the coast, people bring in sand from other areas and deposit it onto the beach Masses of rock like substances calcium carbonate from living organisms Speed of waves approaching the coast is reduced Most of original energy of waves is lost Protect beaches against coastal erosion

Example 24 kilometres of the Miami Beach of the United States was renewed

Disadvantage    

Pacific and Indian Oceans where water is warm and clear

 

This method usually lasts for only about 10 years. Beach quality sand is expensive Miami Beach project costed S$105 million Dynamite fishing, sand mining and land reclamation can destroy coral reefs Water pollution hinders growth of coral reefs Malaysia, for example, banned fishing in protected areas

CONCLUSION: MAPWORK AND PATTERNS 1. Map-work materials Long ruler Set square Protractor Calculator String Pencil Eraser 2. Formulas Vertical Distance

Gradient

(Make use of the contour lines, make sure line corresponds)

Horizontal Distance (Make use of long ruler and multiply with scale accordingly) Always express as a fraction or ratio with the numerator as 1 and denominator 3 sig. fig. if not exact

Dendritic

Trellis

Radial

Centripetal

depict

Main river resembles tree trunk and tributaries resemble branches

features

3. River and drainage patterns

River flows over areas of same rock types

Resembles pattern formed by bricks on a wall Rocks are made up of alternate bands of resistant and less resistant rocks

Move out from centrally elevated location River originates from the top of a steep hill, mountain or volcano

Rivers move towards of a focal point or depression Usually towards a volcano crater forming a crater lake

diagram

Opposite direction from radial, resembling spokes of a bicycle wheel 4. Common unique rivers

Centripetal rivers

Waterfalls formed by faulting

Rivers around Lake Toba in Indonesia

Victoria Falls along Zambezi River in South Africa

5. Weather patterns (describing from climograph)

Mean

Range/Distribution

Seasonality

Extreme months

Mean annual temperature Annual Temperature is ...with the hottest of climograph is high at temperature range hot throughout months in May and 26.8º C is low at 1.7º C the year... June at 27.5º C Mean annual rainfall The highest rainfall Rainfall is well ...with no dry shown is very high at in December at distributed... season 2343.7 mm 282.2 mm From the temperature and rainfall data, it can be seen that the climograph experiences a hot and wet climate throughout the year and is likely an equatorial climate.

Temperature Rainfall Identify

6. Weather descriptors

Mean temp. Temp. range Rainfall

High

Moderate

Low

Above 20ºC Above 15ºC Above 2000mm 1200 to 2000mm

10ºC to 20ºC 5 to 15ºC 750 to 1200mm

Below 10ºC Below 5ºC 250 to 750mm Below 250mm

7. Others When Velocity drops Volume drops

Relation to factors Channel shape Channel slope Channel pattern Size of drainage basin Permeability of rocks Climate

When When When When

Why there is an increase in wetted perimeter there is a sudden change in gradient the river flows into a calm lake or sea little or no rain enters a river

When the river flows across permeable rocks, allowing sinking in of water When the river flows across a desert when evapotranspiration rates are high

Features Floodplains Deltas

TOPIC 3: DEVELOPMENT 1. Development terminologies Development Standard of living Quality of life Core Periphery Cumulative causation Multiplier effect Backwash effect Spread effect

Improvements in quality of life and standard of living Living conditions or conditions in which people live A measurement of the satisfaction with one’s living conditions and lifestyle Region that has a high concentration of people, wealth and standard of living Region that has a low concentration of people, little wealth and sol. Increase in wealth of the core due to more economic activities from the movement of people and resources from the periphery Result of the initial development of the core that comes with benefits to drive development Flow of labour and other resources from the periphery to the core Spread of wealth and knowledge from the core to periphery, assisting economic development in the periphery

2. Core Periphery Theory Core (or DCs) 1 Availability of jobs High concentration of secondary and 2 tertiary industries 3

Urbanised with good infrastructure

4

High concentration of wealth

Spread 1

Periphery (or LDCs) Fewer jobs, services and investments

Finished products, investments, wealth, knowledge

2

High concentration of primary industries

Backwash

3

Labour and raw materials

4

High standard of living

Full access to healthcare and education

High quality of life

Good infrastructure with many transport and communication systems Good social benefits with health plans and tax rebates Access to leisure facilities

1. 2. 3. 4.

Low percentage of population have access to healthcare and education Poor infrastructure with few transport and communication lines and constant congestion Lack of social benefits

Low standard of living Low quality of life

High pollution, little access to leisure facilities

Spread  Centrifugal growth Thailand developed automobile industry in late 1990s Japanese car manufacturing companies moved their factories to Thailand to reduce manufacturing costs Local people picked up knowledge and skills in automobile manufacturing from Japanese counterparts Investments from Japan 5. Japanese car manufacturers benefited helped Thailand’s with cheap labour costs by employing economy grow (spread) Thai workers (centrifugal growth)

3. Explaining development indicators Effective  Industrial level - High availability of industries - Wide variety of services and food - Potentially generate more income for citizens  Level of wealth - Tertiary and secondary industries involve manufacturing machines and trained workers, creation of the various industries require money - Countries with this wealth can   Wealth of citizens - Trained and knowledgeable workers will gain higher salary - Goods produced in tertiary and secondary generate more income as It is more value-added 

Employment structure

Economic

Backwash  Cumulative causation Singapore 1. Attracted workers from periphery countries like Bangladesh and Philippines 2. Developed quickly 3. Periphery drained of labour, hindering development in the periphery countries

Limited infrastructure like roads and piped water Weak and poor economy

Ineffective Only a ratio - A country may have a less people employed in the SAT industry compared to another, but more people by proportion to primary industry - Inaccurate to conclude that the country is more developed

Income per capita Life expectancy

Employment opportunities

Economic

Effective 



Industrial level - More developed country - Added goods and services from secondary and tertiary industries - Finished products instead of raw materials - Generate more income - Higher GNP per capita Higher standard of living - More money  Greater ability to build education, healthcare and sanitation facilities - Higher quality of life for people



Purchasing power - High levels of wealth of people - Demand for good and services high - Expansion of businesses and infrastructure seen to generate revenue - High employment opportunities - Lower long-term employment levels in workforce



Level of healthcare and sanitation - People can live longer due to availability of healthcare and proper sanitation resulting in proper hygiene levels. Level of wealth - Countries with higher life expectancy are usually DCs - Government can afford to build healthcare facilities and proper sanitation - People can afford to pay for such services



  

*Ineffective Average GNP per capita figure - May appear large although majority of country’s citizens are living in poverty - Large income gap between the extremely rich and the extremely poor  Informal economic activities - Activities such as tutoring services, street hawking are not registered with the government - GNP per capita appears lower  Social and environmental costs - E.g. Increasing income gap between the rich and poor - E.g. Air pollution which came with development

Infant mortality rate Water supply & sanitation



Sanitation & healthcare systems - Easier accessibility to sanitation and healthcare services - Higher availability of such services Wars or droughts in LDCS - Cause a shortage of food - Babies die from famine or malnutrition

Wealth of country - Country able to provide proper sanitation and safe water supply for its citizens

Literacy rate

Education

Health

\



Wealth of country - Many financial resources of a country available to meet educational needs of its people - More schools built, more teachers can be trained - Cost of education can be subsidised

Unable to compare between LDCs - Social customs in LDC may result in limited female’s access to education - Lower literacy rate - Few schools are built as children have to help out on the farms.

4. Cumulative Causation Development of new industry in core Employment Jobs created level A. Full A. Creation of employment jobs result in opportunities more income B. Wide range B. Attracts of skills and youthful youthful workers from workers the periphery C. Population in search of required jobs increases

Further development of commercial and economic activities Demand of goods and Public services Businesses Wealth level services and facilities A. Increase in income, Increases across A. Increases due A. Transport and affordability and research and to higher healthcare purchasing power development and paying jobs expands B. Increase in size of within goods and B. Improved B. Higher domestic market super marts infrastructure standard of C. Greater secondary like more living and tertiary community C. Government activities like in centres built collect more health, taxes entertainment, education and retail sectors

Colonial history

Raw materials Climate

Physical

Historical

5. Factors influencing level of development Factors Description  Colonial powers tend to develop countries colonised to obtain raw materials with basic infrastructure like railway system and industries like mining and rubber plantations  Outflow of natural resources resulted in colonies being unable to develop their economy fully as they were very dependent on their colonial government politically & economically  

    

Countries that were colonised because of their strategic locations for control of important trade routes in the past were able to develop faster As compared to countries that were colonised because of their raw materials.

Countries that have plenty of raw materials develop faster than countries that have few or no materials. Money earned from selling the raw materials, like timber and crude oil, can be spent on projects to develop the country Temperate climate usually favours the growth of crops People grow these crops on a large scale for sale in their countries and export overseas Harsh climates with constant disasters result in people having to constantly rebuild their homelands and hindering development and revenue from tourism

   

   

Greater demand for goods and services Industrial Support for goods and services growth A. Linkages to Old industries support revamped to production and more tertiary distribution and quaternary established for industries exports to overseas world markets B. Allow for more innovation and invention

Examples The Portuguese colonised Angola in 1500s to set up cotton, coffee and cocoa plantations by exploiting favourable physical conditions and availability of labour. Cash crops exported to Europe for sale at high prices. Singapore was colonised by the British due to its location along the Straits of Malacca. The British developed its port and city by setting up schools , building infrastructure & investing in businesses. Norway, ranked first in HDI, is well-endowed with natural resources like oil from the North Sea off its shore Able to use money generated to improve infrastructure like roads, housing and water treatment plants Cool and moist climate in Canada and USA is suitable for growing many important crops like wheat and oat China experiences floods every year along major rivers, killing 1000 and losses of US$12.6 billion in 2005

Factors Cumulative causation

Economic

  

Description Investments in industries create jobs that encourage an inflow of workers and triggering a local demand for goods and services. Revenue gained from expansion of industries allows government to improve infrastructure With a multiplier effect, investors from urban centres who seek to provide their goods and services are attracted, enhancing the economic activities and wealth generated in the area

Examples

Thailand development of a automobile industry in late 1990s attracted Japanese car manufacturing companies to shift factories to there to reduce manufacturing costs

Social

Education

   

Population growth rate

  

Lack of trained teachers and facilities in LDCs result in lower percentage of population able to get the necessary education and low literacy rates People with little formal education face difficulties learning new skills and embracing modern technology Shortage of skilled labour hinders development of industries Effects of high birthrates cause development of country to slow down as more resources have to be given to provide healthcare, food and education for the youthful population Less resources available for improving quality of life for the general population Fewer children show a higher cost of living, higher standard of living and changing lifestyle preferences

  

Populations of Kenya, Nigeria and Ethiopia increase approximately 3% per year at a much faster rate than DCs like Norway and Japan of 0.5% per year. 

Political

Conflict

 

Leadership



 

Stable government attracts more MNCs by creating stable and peaceful environment for business to develop. Investments will not be at risk in changes of political leadership with no internal struggles for power Assured that no bribes will be needed to set up businesses in the country.

Countries that are progressing well in their economic, health and education sectors are run by efficient and development-oriented governments. These governments are forward-looking and dedicated to meeting the needs and aspirations of their people, ensuring maximum development.

Italy has a high GDP per capita of about US$28 000 in 2005 and 98.5% literacy rate Due to long history of placing a strong emphasis on education - Has wealth to build schools and train teachers to educate its people Sierra Leone has a low literacy rate of 30% as it has little money to spend on education with a GDP per capita of only US$548. Much of the population is involved in agriculture, little effort to provide opportunities for rural people to learn to read and write



      

Sierra Leone has experienced political conflict and social instability due to a civil war in the 1970s that killed 1.7 million people. Sierra Leone being one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. The HDI of Sierra Leone was ranked second from the bottom in 2005. Long history of political stability and peace. Local businesses have flourished with foreign investors having confidence in setting up businesses. Switzerland had a GDP of US$30 552 in 2005. Norwegian government set a profit cap for petroleum producers The rest of the money earned goes to the people of Norway Ensures that wealth generated from Norway’s petroleum industry is shared among its people. Norway ranked first in HDI in 2005

Effectiveness

Alleviate development Reduces poverty Increases quality of life 67 member countries in the Asia-Pacific region 5. Monetary loans and technical assistance.

1. Bridge of Jamuna Multipurpose Bridge Project of Bangladesh 2. Connects less developed northwestern region to more developed regions 3. Financial and technical support include roads, railways, gas pipelines and telecommunication lines 4. Less traffic congestion allows farmers to transport their produce to markets for sale.

1. Greater industrailisation from alleviating development 2. At the expense of degradation of the environment such as deforestation, depletion of minerals, and environmental pollution 3. Global warming will be more fatal to the world than issues of poverty in the long run.

1. International agreement 2. Other countries pledged their commitment 3. Aim to help LDCs get out of poverty by 2015 4. Encompass social, demographic and economic goals

1. Poverty and hunger-stricken Vietnam 2. Increased access to basic social services for the poor 3. Educational campaigns to raise awareness of poverty in the country 4. Pressure on the government to create jobs and increase income

1. Conflicts of interest present 2. Most investments made in the country trap farmers and their children to work on the farms with low wages 3. They cannot afford to send their children to schools for education

1. Adopted by more than 160 countries 2. Control usage of seas and oceans in the world for sustainable use them 3. So that they will not be depleted

1. Coastal LDC Peru 2. Fishing industry is important to its economy 3. Law disallows larger fishing boats from surrounding DCs, that can spot and collect fish underwater easily, from fishing at Peru’s seas without permission 4. Allows the poor fishermen to make a living and maintain their livelihood

1. Landlocked countries like Bolivia in South America do not benefit from it 2. Allows other American countries to develop at a faster rate than it 3. Alleviation of development between LDCs and DCs would not be complete

Asian Development Bank

World Bank

1. Kecamatan Development Programme in Sleepy Tirtomoyo, Indonesia 2. Provides financial aid and water 3. Locals to dig wells to tap on underground water sources and build pipelines.

1. Some countries in need might not voice out 2. Not agree to some of the ways they should handle problems 3. Sudden rise of food prices in the world in January 2011, countries like Thailand and Africa tended to impose import taxes on foreign goods to get money 4. Did not realise this selfish acts will only aggravate the malnutrition situation in the world

UN Millennium Development Goals

Example

UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

International agreements

International organisations

6. Measures to alleviate uneven development internationally Way Org Description 1. Aid to less developed countries 2. Social or Economical help 3. Aid and money 4. Including loans with low or no interest 1. 2. 3. 4.

7. Measures to alleviate uneven development internationally

Plan

Social Water supply and Sanitation Parivartan Slum Networking Programme in Ahmedabad of Gurjarat, India

Education

Demographic Population control

Economic Job creation

Hill Tribe Education Project in Thailand

One Child Policy in China

KALAHI ‘Linking Arms Against Poverty’ in the Philippines



Results



   

Besides general underdeveloped characteristics, the area lacks basic minimum education and insufficient skills with low income and poor standard of living. Water supply to individual households. Underground sewerage connection to individual households. Toilets to individual households. Training was provided to teach villagers proper usage of new facilities



Northern hill tribes like Karen and Yao were introduced to formal and informal education programmes to suit the needs of their communities.  A community learning centre was built in each village open to children and adults.  To promote literacy, the Thai language, Mathematics and life and social skills were taught.

The Chinese government discovered in the 1970s that there was an increasing rate of population growth that could result in overpopulation to hinder further development.  Therefore, the One Child policy was implemented to limit every couple to have only one child.  Volunteers were recruited to promote late marriages, late childbearing and teach proper contraception methods to keep birth rates low.  Fertility rates in China fell, especially in urban areas



Pro-poor policies were implemented to help more people set up and run small businesses, usually run by families.  The ultra-poor were given interest free loans and leadership and selfemployment training to help them run businesses effectively.  The government also obliged banks to allocate part of their credit loans to be given to poor farmers and entrepreneurs.



Limitations



The slums were not developed on priority basis.  The slum networking basically deals with notified slum and not with the other poor settlements, and because of lack of funds the project could only be carried out in phases. It took 5 years for death rates to drop by almost half.  While it benefited some slums, majority are still deprived of clean water and sanitation facilities



Hill tribes live in small communities and in geographical isolation.  It is difficult for the government to reach out to the large population in the community.  Communication barriers between the hill tribes and lack of volunteer teachers have been time consuming and a great challenge to this project.

It is more difficult to implement this policy in the rural areas of China as couples in the region required more children for additional help their farms to make a living.  Many of the couples would want a son and hence tend to continue bearing until they succeeded in having a son.  With more males than females eventually, gender imbalance might not allow sufficient people to take care of the elderly in the future.

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Products and skills of the poor not diversified as yet.  The poor requires greater market access in order to get more people to purchase their goods and services, as competition still exists among the poor.  More volunteers are needed to reach out to those living in areas that are difficult to reach.

TOPIC 4: GEOGRAPHY OF FOOD 1. Trends in Food Production and Distribution LDCs

Description

Levels of food consumption

Changing food preferences

 Less carbohydrates in diets

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 More nonstaple food

LDCs consume less food than DCs

Increased food consumption in the world

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Evidence

DCs 

Mainly obtained from staple food making up important part of diet Decreasing in proportion although still makes up large proportion

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More non-staple food like meat, fish and coffee Consists largely of proteins and fats More common in urban areas

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Poorest 20% in the world’s population Consumes only about 5% of meat and fish in the world

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Efforts to increase supply of food Green revolution General increase on amount of food consumed

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76% carbohydrates in 1971 to 1973 in LDCs 68% carbohydrates in 1999 to 2001 in LDCs

More healthy food

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5% to 10% proteins 10% to 15% fats from 1972 to 2000 High-fat diet urban China citizens from 33% to 61% 1991 to 1997

Larger variety of food

Food consumption per capita of Africa Lower than 2200 kCal/person/day

DCs consume more food than LDCs

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Mid-1960s to 1990s Sub Saharan African region Increased by 137 kCal/person/day

Increased food consumption in the world

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Description Increasing levels of healthconsciousness Moving away from high-fat products Olive oil reducing risks of heart disease Organic food found to be healthier choice People in DCs becoming more exposed to different types of food around the world Globalisation has increased due to faster transports and advanced communications Fusion food popular

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Evidence Though high consumption of meat Proportion of fats in USA diet fell from 33% to 26% from 1950s to 2000 Consumption and imports of olive oil more than doubled from 1995 to 2005 Sales of organic food tripled over the last five years in UK Asian person exposed to American fast food may choose to eat more bread or potato than rice Thai food in UK, Mediterranean food in Canada is common Americans introduced to sushi in the 1970s, LA chefs developed California roll, replacing the raw fish in sushi

Richest 20% in the world’s population Consumes nearly half meat and fish in the world

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Food consumption per capita of North America & Europe Exceeds 3400 kCal/person/day

Efforts to increase supply of food Green revolution General increase on amount of food consumed

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Mid-1960s to 1990s East Asian region Increased by 964 kCal/person/day

2. Reasons for variations of food production

Purchasing power

Description People in DCs generally have higher incomes  Greater purchasing power - More likely to be able to buy enough food - Meet basic nutritional needs  -Wider variety of food - LDCs improving financial conditions in urban areas by cumulative causation DCs can set aside and store food - Economically  well-to-do - Buy extra food and storage facilities Control food supply in market - Less effect during crop failure or food disruption - Low risk

East Asia food consumption - Increased 827 kCal/person/day more than Sub-Saharan Africa did - Mid-1960s to 1990s High-fat diet urban China citizens - Increased 33% to 61% from 1991 to 1997 East Asian Emergency Rise Reserve (EAERR) started in 2004 Member countries like Vietnam and Singapore contribute certain quantity of rice to a reserve - Used during emergencies like disasters

Conflicts and riots Natural causes

Hurricane Katrina in 2005 - Destroyed much farmland and livestock in southwestern USA - Left people without food Spread of bird flu in Asia in late 2003 - Over 20 million poultry destroyed by dying or being culled - Shortage of poultry meat Lack of transport routes especially in rural areas of LDCs and congestion in LDCs like India - Decrease time for transport Landslides like those from 1999 Taiwan earthquake - May make some areas inaccessible

Transport facilities

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Absence of transport facilities in LDCs - Hinder food distribution - Prevents access to food But improvements and additions in transport Cross rivers by bridges and mountains by planes Advancements in trans.comm - Increase exchange of information, ideas, cultures and values - Companies expand food business by opening outlets abroad But access in LDCs often limited to urban areas where there are more food outlets and better transport and communications networks in place.

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Trade

Second Congo War in Democratic Republic of Congo from 1998 - 3.6 million dead from starvation and easily preventable diseases

Droughts, floods, earthquakes or hurricanes Wipe out entire harvests easily - Severe food shortages - Lower food supply

People have greater access to food from around the world - Trade barriers limit trade between countries - Access to food will be affected

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Few places selling food in LDCs - Limited variety and quantity of food - Grown locally or imported from other countries based on globalisation

Globalisation

Examples

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Conflicts among nations - Crops and livestock destroyed - Farmers abandon fields - Threaten food supply and security

Food outlets

Accessibility of food

Stability of food supply

Stock piling

Affordability

Reason

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Americans were introduced to sushi in the 1970s Los Angeles chefs developed California roll, replacing the raw fish in sushi with cucumber, cooked crabmeat and avocado

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In China, it is easier to find restaurants and fast food chains offering wide variety of food - In cities like Shanghai Compared to rural regions like Inner Mongolia. UN prohibited countries from trading w/Iraq aft ‘91 Gulf War Significant decrease in imports of food and farming inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides into Iraq

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Result Greater consumption of food Non-staple food, since more expensive, increasing in consumption than staple food in urban areas of LDCs Improved food security Better stability of food in DCs DCs not self-sufficient able to tackle food emergencies Unstable food supply Lower food security - People unable to obtain enough food of acceptable quality and variety readily Countries not self-sufficient like Singapore and Japan which rely on food imports affected adversely Lower levels of food consumption in LDCs Temporary cut-off of ability to obtain food needed

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Larger variety of food in DCs More healthy food in DCs Increased food consumption in the world

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Variety of food minimised temporarily Food supply affected slightly

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3. Impacts of Variations of Food consumption Starvation

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70% of most Sub-Saharan African countries like Somalia

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Malnutrition Late 1990s Davao City in the Philippines, widespread deficiencies in iodine, iron and Vitamin A - Slow growth for children and low energy for adults

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Obesity

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400 million obese, USA has 32% adults obese

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Description People do not receive enough energy from their diet due to severe shortage of food Poor harvest and low purchasing power are factors People consume an imbalanced amount of nutrients over a period of time. Anorexia nervosa, starving oneself forcibly, and bulimia, vomiting everything that was just eaten by a person, are factors relating to this, including low purchasing power

Effects Bodies become skeletally thin  Muscle tissues burnt for energy  Organs may become permanently damaged Bodies are weakened  Lower resistance to common illnesses  Damage to internal organs due to low vitamin D, calcium that result in poor teeth and deformed bones  Inevitable eventual death  Rickets and anaemia due to low iron levels

People consume much more nutrients than a body can use, body fat exceeds one-third of one’s weight This can be attributed to growing affluence in LDCs

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High blood pressure Diabetes Heart disease

4. Factors Affecting Intensity of Food Production

GM Food Crops (LORMs) #

Technological

Political Government policies

Effective High technology farming - Aeroponics and hydroponics, more efficient, less pollution, higher out per unit area

Examples Oh Chin Huat farms, Singapore

Resettling aid schemes - Land, facilities, tools and seeds to help farmers resettle in new farm areas

Federal Land Development Authority, Malaysia

Increases income for farmers - GM food crops are generally fresher and more resistant to pests and low rainfall

Pest resistant corns created with Bt, fewer crops damaged, more output, income

Increases food supply - Some GM crops are able to produce higher outputs than non-GM Reduces environmental pollution - Pest-resistant GM Crops, less use of chemicals, like non-ozonefriendly ones

Super Rice produces double the output of normal rice Lowa, USA, eutrophication due to high amounts of fertilisers

Ineffective (*or problems) Examples Limitations in fish catch (both sides) - Country’s amount and type of fish is European Union adopted Common regulated, fish caught limited, Fisheries Policy ensures enough fish in future Bans on GM Food - Farmers will lose Zambia rejected GM food imports, fear chance to increase income and food health impact supply Some people fear that they may unknowingly consume potatoes *Potential health risks - Some food containing Lectin, which prevents substances may cause unknown successful aphid attacks. allergies as they are not natural GM Pea caused health problems in research mice. Monarch butterflies which fed on *Loss of biodiversity - More species plants that were dusted with Bt corn become endangered and extinct, pollen had larvae growing slower and greater loss of variety of living things dying at a faster rate than butterflies in an ecosystem which did not, possibly affect animals higher up the food chain

Improves nutritional value Nutrients and vitamins added to prevent common illnesses and diseases

Pesticides - Toxic chemicals destroying pests which affect crop growth

Arsenic is used by farmers in India to poison rats attacking rice crops

HYVs (G Rev)

Cross breeding a range of rice, wheat, cereal strains - More pest resistant or shorter growth durations, higher yield and outputs per unit area

Blue Rev.

Herbicides - Toxic chemicals destroying weeds competing for nutrients in the soil Overcomes physical limitations Water is supplied to land through artificial means. Dams, canals divert water from rivers and reservoirs to farms. Increases crop output - Automated irrigation systems may use water sprinklers and sluice gates to control water usage

Encourages fish farming - Farmers rear fish in ponds or enclosed areas under special conditions promoting growth instead of catching fish from oceans

Ineffective (*or problems)

Golden Rice enriched with beta*Loss of natural species - Some GM crops carotene, more Vitamin A, hinders genetically pollute natural crops that are not GM, blindness and death may result in superweeds

Fertilisers - Substances added to soil to provide nutrients for healthy plant growth

Technological Modern Irrigation (G Rev)

Chemicals (G Rev)

^GM Food

Effective

*Eutrophication of water bodies - Excess fertilisers in water bodies cause rapid growth of algae, reducing oxygen supply *Water pollution - Contaminates water bodies, reducing quality of water, harming aquatic plants and animals, and animals which consume them and the water *Imbalance of soil nutrients - Chemical fertilisers supply 2-3/>20 essential nutrients, which excludes humus, unable to restore nutrients loss, lowering soil fertility

A herbicide-resistant strain of the Charlock weed was compatible to and therefore genetically polluted by herbicide-resistant rapeseed plant Lowa, USA, Algae grows rapidly on surface, blocking of oxygen and sunlight Distribution of drinking water from a dam near Rennes, France, was stopped by public health authorities due to pesticide contamination

Farmers in India, with seasonal, irregular rainfall, can grow 2 to 3 crops instead of 1 per year

*Salinisation of soil - Salts are built up within the soil through flood irrigation, use of dams and groundwater when water contains natural dissolved salts

Aswan High Dam across River Nile, Egypt, disrupts flow of water, causing minerals trapped in reservior to dissolve into water, salinity of soil will be too high for crop growth

Farmers in Turkey use spray irrigation, drip amounts of water just sufficient for healthy crop growth, save water

*Waterlogging - Too much water used in fields, soil becomes saturated with water - Air and nutrients unable to reach crops - They wither and die

Pakistan and India, farmers use excess water to deal with salinisation but this over-irrigates the fields

Sophisticated - Cultivation and maturing process China’s rice output >doubled from complicated - Farmers unable to follow procedures 1961 to 1992 & Indonesia’s rice accurately output increased 80% from 1970 Expensive - Large quantities of chemicals have to to 1990. be used - Less well-off farmers cannot afford Central Institute of Freshwater Medicines and vaccines - Medicines and vaccines Aquaculture in India - 500 have to be used to improve the health & nutrition hatcheries and laboratories of fish since viruses can spread rapidly if present conduct research on species like *Destruction of coastal mangroves - Mangroves prawns and carp - 30% of fish are replaced by farms - coastal erosion more likely harvest is supplied commercially

Although cereal crops increased significantly in LDCs like Mexico and India, it has increased rural unemployment due to less manual labour needed Thousands of kilometres of destroyed in Philippines, Indonesia and Ecuador to create fish and shrimp farms

Soil erosion - In some countries that experience snow or earthquakes with steep relief - Nutrients is soil are washed away during soil erosion - Arable land is not enough for people to grow land to meet nutritional needs.

Gentle and flat - Soil erosion less likely, nutrients not lost easily, land remains fertile - Tractors and harvesters operated with ease - No labour needed for terraces Nutrients in soil is washed Fertility of soil - Floodplains, river deltas away by constant melting with large amounts of air, water essential snow and heavy rainfall in for plant growth and nutrients like certain parts in the Himalayas, phosphorus, iron and zinc to help plant Andes. Two-thirds of total growth - Near volcanoes with ash rich in households suffer from minerals malnutrition. Type of soil - Different types of soil are required by different types of crops In Hunza, Pakinstan, potatoes are grown largely in farms High temperature and rainfall (hot and where they are 2000m above wet) - Output is higher is general as sea level. Salmon farms are conditions are favourable for plant growth. popular in Ireland and USA.

Canadian Prairies, Canada, farming

Volcanic ash deposited around Mount Mayon, Philippines, from time to time cause soil around the area to be fertile, favourable for cultivation of crops as less fallowing time is needed Wet rice is more likely to be found on floodplains and river deltas and wet and clayey soil is found. Bangladesh farmers grow wet rice on a flooded field and are able to produce two or more successive crops in the same year.

China and Korea, land fragmentation, more labour required, productivity low

Brazil, landlords make up 2% of population but own 42% of the land

Demand

*Low temperature and rainfall (cool and dry climate) - Temperature regions enable crops like wheat and potatoes to grow without too much water and fish like salmon to grow and reproduce well. Father divides land into smaller plots equally among children traditionally Resultant plots very small over generations - Limited output - Unprofitable for expensive machines Farmers usually do not own land they farm in LDCs - By governments or landlords - Farmers to give much of harvest - Little motivation for farmers to improve farming methods

Effective

Tea plantations are a common sight in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia

High demand for food - Encourage food producers to increase their output and productivity - More employment and more money is earned

Coffee is high in demand for ~25 mil people in LDCs, hence Brazil has many coffee plantations. 200 new employees are employed every day worldwide for this purpose.

Capital

Economic

Social Land Tenure Land Fragmentation

Climate

Physical Soil

Relief

Ineffective [*or effective of inverse (boxed up) ]

*Steep relief - In this way, soil is better drained, for proper tea cultivation of certain crops

Large amount of capital - Needed for farming machines, fertilisers, pesticides, sonar for fish detection - More money to start or expand food production - Loans let farmers upgrade farming methods

Successful large-scale capital investments by the European Union in member countries have seen massive food surpluses of wheat, sugar beet, butter and wine being produced.