Engines. 1. Ask the scouts to describe the features of each component so that they can identify the component on a diffe
Heathrow Aviation Skills Badge Leaders Pack
Contents Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 2 Access Granted! ................................................................................................................................. 3 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 3 The Airfield ....................................................................................................................................... 3 Access to Heathrow ........................................................................................................................... 3 Activity – Policy, Organisation and Rules (answers)............................................................................... 4 Activity – Test Your Knowledge........................................................................................................... 4 Taxiways and Terminals ..................................................................................................................... 5 Hunt for the Hazards ........................................................................................................................... 6 1. Runway Incursion..................................................................................................................... 6 2. Baggage Left on the Middle of a Taxiway ................................................................................ 6 3. Person Walking Close to a Turbine.......................................................................................... 7 4. FOD (Foreign Object Damage/ Debris).................................................................................... 7 5. Fumes Coming from an Engine ............................................................................................... 7 6. Spillages (fuel, chemicals…) .................................................................................................... 8 7. Bird Strikes ............................................................................................................................... 8 Aircraft Anatomy ................................................................................................................................. 9 Name that Plane ............................................................................................................................... 10 Name that Plane from Images. .......................................................................................................... 10 Name that Plane (Research).............................................................................................................. 10 Whatever the Weather ...................................................................................................................... 12 Speak Like A Pilot ............................................................................................................................. 12 Test Pilot ........................................................................................................................................... 13 You Have Control ............................................................................................................................. 14 Ailerons .......................................................................................................................................... 14 Elevators ......................................................................................................................................... 15 Uplifting ............................................................................................................................................. 16 Angle of Attack .................................................................................................................................. 17 Move like a Marshall ......................................................................................................................... 18 Test your Knowledge Answers ...................................................................................................... 18 Bird’s Eye View ................................................................................................................................. 19 Piston Power ..................................................................................................................................... 19 Jet Set Go ......................................................................................................................................... 20 Get up to Speed ................................................................................................................................ 20 The Sky’s the Limit ........................................................................................................................... 21
Introduction This pack should be used alongside the Scout’s Activity Pack to provide specific answers to activities and to assist in guiding them through discussions of particular aviation skills.
Access Granted! Introduction Access to an airfield varies from one airfield to the next and permission should always be sought from the controlling body before going to an airfield. The only exceptions to this are the spectators enclosure when visiting a civil airport, or on an open day at a military airfield. Before attending, scouts should be briefed on:
The general layout of the airfield with special reference to the runways in use, taxiing areas and safe areas for spectators. The hazards of jet intakes and exhausts, propellers, ejection seats, explosive canopies, glider and paraglider launching cables and aviation fuels.
The Airfield An Airfield is an area of land used for the take-off and landing of aircraft excluding buildings and installations. An Aerodrome is a defined area of land or water, including buildings and installations, used for the take-off and landing of aircraft. An Airport is an aerodrome which may handle scheduled air traffic and often has Customs and other travel facilities. The ‘Airfield Layout’ section of this chapter will help to illustrate the main features in the layout of a typical airfield.
Access to Heathrow Access to Heathrow is governed by a set of rules called byelaws. Anybody with a genuine need to enter the airport unrestricted area can do so. This includes passengers, their friends and family, airport and airline staff, shop staff and the emergency services. To access the restricted area of the airport – that’s anything past security, including gates and the airfield – you will need to either be an airline passenger, a member of staff holding the correct airside ID card or a visitor with the correct temporary ID card. Airline passengers will need their boarding pass and ID (usually a passport). Staff will have either a green, blue or red ID card. Visitors need to have a good reason to be in the restricted area and must be escorted by a member of staff holding the correct airside ID card. Colour
Access Landside Internal Airside Internal and External Airside All Areas
Table 1 – some common airside pass colours
Activity – Policy, Organisation and Rules (answers) What are the three rules that all scouts must follow before visiting an airfield? 1. Get permission from the controlling authority of the airfield, aerodrome or airport. 2. Everyone must be briefed in line with FS120702 ‘Access to Airfields’. 3. The rules do not apply if the visit is to the spectators stand at a civil airfield or to an open day at a military airfield.
Activity – Test Your Knowledge 1. A jet plane is on the airfield and has its engines running – where is the safest place for you to stand? B. To the side of the aircraft at a safe distance 2. You see an item on a taxiway that could damage an aircraft. What could it be and what should you do? C. It’s FOD (Foreign Object Debris) and we should tell a member of staff immediately. 3.You are lost on the airfield. What should you do? A. Head in the direction you think is right, stay near the perimeter track and be observant.
Taxiways and Terminals Activity
The aim of the activity is to make sure that the Scout understands the basic functions of the main elements of an airfiels (runways, taxiways, terminals, control tower) and some principles of good layout. The rule of thumb for airfield layout is: simple is efficient and simple is safe! The diagram below provides examples of good and less good runway, taxiway and terminal layouts. The Scout is not expected to draw to that level of detail; this diagram is principally meant to give to the Scout leaders / parents clues to assess whether the Scout has a good understanding of the airfield layout.
Hunt for the Hazards The aim of this activity is to help the scouts understand and be aware of hazards faced on an airfield. They will have to draw the seven hazards listed in a picture of an airfield. Afterwards they will have to discuss their implications and how to avoid them. On this pack, we provide some risks and solutions for each of the hazards listed as indication for the Scouts leader.
1. Runway Incursion A runway incursion occurs when an unauthorized aircraft, vehicle or person goes into a runway during the operating time. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines a runway incursion as: “Any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and take-off of aircraft”. Risks Decrease the safety of the runway Increase the risk of collision of an aircraft when it lands or take off. Thus we put the passengers and pilot at risk Damage to the aircraft can be caused The unauthorized aircraft, vehicle or person that did the incursion are also at risk If any damage is caused, the runway will have to close, implying cancelations and disruption in the airport Potential Solutions awareness campaigns additional visual aids (signs, markings and lighting) the mitigation of blind spots in the aerodrome control tower use of alternative routings construction of new taxiways
2. Baggage Left on the Middle of a Taxiway Similar to a runway incursion, an aircraft can be damaged if anything is left on the taxiways (i.e. baggage). Less risk than on a runway where planes are taking off and landing, an item found on a taxiway is a risk for people and aircraft. If a piece of baggage is not well placed by the handlers and on the way to a terminal fall down of the vehicle, it can cause disruption
Risks Can cause damage to an aircraft Put passengers and staff at risk Can cause delays on the airport Potential Solutions taxiway layout and design markings, markers and lights to determine in which areas and which vehicles are allowed in the taxiways
assure handlers have regulations that ensure the luggage is well placed - have closed boxes to transport luggage from one place to another
3. Person Walking Close to a Turbine There are many dangers working airside, and one of the most serious is the effect of aircraft engines. It is called engine ingestion injuries. Taking safety precautions when working around aircrafts can avoid serious injury or death. There are other potential risks if walking close to a turbine such as blast, ingestion, fumes or propellers.
Risks The main risk is the ingestion That ingestion can cause injuries or death to people The ingestion can also cause damage to the engine Potential Solutions Never go/drive behind an aircraft with its engines running. Never approach an aircraft until it has stopped, the wheels have been chocked, the anti-collision lights have gone out and the engines or propellers have run down. Be very aware of helicopter rotor blades and downwash
4. FOD (Foreign Object Damage/ Debris) Airside cleanliness is paramount. Foreign Object Damage is any damaged that has been caused by an external object of the aircraft, that can put in risk the safety of the aircraft or can cause any physical or economic damage. Foreign Object Damage presents a very serious hazard, not only to aircraft, vehicles and equipment but to personnel as well. Risks Put aircraft, vehicles, equipment and people at risk Depending on object and situation can cause fires, thus disruption on the airport Potential solutions
Keep the airfield clean and tidy awareness campaigns Do not approach aircraft if it is not stopped
5. Fumes Coming from an Engine As we have previously mentioned with turbines on an aircraft, fumes coming from engines are one of the most dangerous hazards on an aircraft. Risks Fumes are dangerous for people’s health Fumes imply low visibility in that area Can cause damage on equipment and aircraft Potential solutions Never go/drive behind an aircraft with its engines running.
Never approach an aircraft until it has stopped, the wheels have been chocked, the anti-collision lights have gone out and the engines or propellers have run down. Assure airlines are meeting regulation requirements
6. Spillages (fuel, chemicals…) Spillages are another hazard airside and where possible must be dealt with immediately. Airside examples of these: aircraft or vehicle fuel, Hydraulic fluid, Chemicals, Bio sewage, Dangerous goods or Blood products.Each of the above can cause a serious risk to an individual’s health and safety, depending on circumstance, amount, type and location. Risks
Damage to equipment, aircraft or people Need to clean the area, causing disruption to the airport Potential solutions Keep the airfield clean and tidy awareness campaigns about what things are allowed in each area
7. Bird Strikes A bird or a flock of birds that goes on the runway or its surroundings can collide with an aircraft landing or taking off, making the aircraft crash under some circumstances. Birds can cause damage not only if they crash with the engine, but also with the fuselage. Risks The aircraft can crash causing injuries or deaths If it doesn’t crash, it can still involve expensive structural and mechanic damage to that aircraft The bird or group of birds are killed Potential solutions Make the airport unattractive to birds Study what attracts them, and what are the times that have more abundance
Aircraft Anatomy Objective- the objective of this section is to familiarise scouts with the basic component parts of a fixed wing aeroplane. By the end of this section scouts should be able to recall the key components of an aircraft and identify them on an image of an aircraft. Activity The solution to the puzzle is as follows: Component Part Fuselage Wing Flight Deck Hold Horizontal Stabiliser Landing Gear Nose Vertical Stabiliser Engines
Number on picture 5 7 3 2 4 9 6 8 1
Ask the scouts to describe the features of each component so that they can identify the component on a different aircraft. Introduce other terms such as port and starboard (left and right side). Explain to the scouts that not all engines are jets; they could be propellers and may be mounted on the wing, tail or even nose.
Name that Plane The aim of this section is to familiarise the scouts with a number of different aircraft types and the distinctive features of those aircraft. By the end of the activity scouts should be able to identify aircraft from images or in real life. Activity
Name that Plane from Images. In order from the top of the page: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Airbus A319 Airbus A380 ‘Superjumbo’ Airbus A340-600 Boeing 747-400 ‘Jumbo Jet’
Encourage the scouts to describe the key features of the aircraft they are seeing, using terminology they have learnt in the ‘aircraft anatomy’ section. Activity
Name that Plane (Research) Cessna 182 Type- Light aeroplane (general aviation), Engines- 1 (propeller- nose mounted), High or low wing- High wing, Seats- 4 Eurofighter Typhoon Type- Fighter Jet (military), Engines- 2, Maximum speed- 1.8 Mach, Typical uses- Multi use capable of air policing, peace support and high intensity conflict. MD Explorer Type- Helicopter (general aviation), Engines- 2, Typical uses- Multi use including offshore, emergency medical and law enforcement. What is unusual about the tail?- No tail rotor blade (Uses NOTAR technology instead) Schleicher ASK21 Type- Glider (general aviation), Engines- 0, Number of seats- 2 (arranged in ‘tandem’ with one in front of the other), Wingspan- 17 metres Robinson R22 Type- Helicopter (general aviation), Engines- 1, Seats- 2, Diamond DA42 Type- Light aeroplane (general aviation), Engines- 2, What is a glass cockpit? Instruments are on multi-functional computer screens rather than analogue dials. Hercules C130J Type- Cargo plane (military), Engines- 4, Typical uses- missions involving parachute operations and air despatch, How many does the RAF have? 24 Chinook HC2/2A/3 Type- Helicopter (military), Number of rotors- 2, Typical uses- support helicopter for a diverse range of environments, How many does the RAF have? 34 HC2, 6 HC2A, 8 HC3 Once the scouts have made notes on each aircraft type, try showing images of each aircraft to the scouts and get them to identify it based on the notes they have made. Images of each type are widely available online.
Flight Forces Activity
Thrust
Lift
Weight Drag
There are four forces that act on an aircraft in flight: lift, weight, thrust and drag. The balance of these forces will determine the motion of the aircraft. Thrust Thrust is the ‘forward’ force created by aircraft engines. Greater thrust will increase speed but also ensure more air flows over the wing, generating more lift. Weight Weight is a force caused by gravity acting on the mass of the aircraft, passengers and fuel. The magnitude of the weight changes throughout a flight due to fuel being burnt. However, the direction of the force is always towards the centre of the earth. Drag Drag is a force which resists the motion of this aircraft, it is caused by air resistance and it acts along the path of the flight. Drag must be overcome by thrust. Lift Lift is a force created by air flowing over the wing of an aircraft. The direction of lift is always perpendicular to the flight direction and its magnitude depends on many factors, including the size and shape of the aircraft as well as its velocity. Lift is needed to overcome the weight of the aircraft to lift it off the ground and enable flight. The motion of the aircraft in flight is determined by the relative strength and direction of the four forces discussed above. When an aircraft is cruising, these four forces are balanced and so the aircraft moves at a constant altitude and velocity. When these forces are unbalanced, the aircraft will accelerate in the direction of the largest force. For example, on take-off, the lift force is greater than the weight and the thrust is greater than the drag so the aircraft accelerates forwards and upwards.
Whatever the Weather
Activity A high pressure area is called an anticyclone. What is a low pressure area called? c) Depression Which area leads to more unsettled and dangerous weather conditions? b) Low Pressure
Speak Like A Pilot Activity - Bonus Question Some airlines use what we call ‘call signs’ to identify their aircraft with the control tower. See if you can guess the airline that matches the following call signs…
Shamrock (Aer Lingus) Springbok (South African Airways) Tango Oscar (Transaero) Speedbird (British Airways)
Test Pilot The same forces that act upon a commercial airliner also act upon a model glider, but instead of engines, your arm provides the thrust. Challenge – construct a model glider to perform a straight glide, stall and specified turn You will need: Model glider Blue-tac Paper clips Tape measure
Activity 1. Begin by constructing your model glider Straight glide: 2. Throw your model glider and measure the distance it travels. The distance the glider travels should be recorded in the table below next to the ‘Straight glide test’. The Scouts can also record any observations in the 3rd column of the table Extra thrust: 3. This time increase the thrust of your glider. Remember, your arm is providing the thrust so to increase the thrust you need to throw your glider with more energy. Measure the distance the glider travels and record this distance next to the ‘Extra thrust’ test. Again, you can record any observations in the table Extra weight: 4. Now let’s add some weight to your model glider. To do this use the blue-tac and paper clips to make your model glider heavier. Throw your glider and measure the distance it travels, recording this distance in the table next to the ‘Extra weight – 1’ test 5. Try experimenting by moving the blue-tac and paper clips to different positions along the length of the model glider. For each time you move the extra weight, record the distance of the weight from the nose of the glider, and the distance the glider travelled. Also record your observations. What do you notice about how the extra weight affects the distance travelled by the glider? Extra weight – tail (stall): 6. This time, move the weight right to the tail end of the glider. Throw your glider, measure the distance travelled and record this in the table. You will notice that by putting the extra weight at the tail of the glider, you caused it to stall. This is because by adding the extra weight, you increased the angle of attack of the glider. If the angle of attack is increased above a critical point, the lift of the glider decreases, causing the glider to stall. Turn: 7. For the final activity, fold the trailing edge of one of the wings. Throw the glider and record the distance travelled in the table. Repeat this activity but fold the trailing edge of the other wing instead. Again, record the distance travelled and any observations. By folding the trailing edge of the wing you created an ‘aileron’. This is what is used on aircraft to cause them to turn
You Have Control The control surfaces of an aircraft are what allow a pilot to adjust and control the aircraft’s flight. These control surfaces work by moving on hinges or tracks to redirect the air flowing over them to change the forces acting on the plane and so change the direction of the plane. In order to understand how control surfaces work, it is important to understand the motion of an aircraft. There are three types of movement: Pitch – changes the vertical direction that the nose of the aircraft is pointing in Roll – changes the rotation of the aircraft about an axis through its length, rolling raises one wing and lowers the other Yaw – changes the horizontal direction that the nose of the aircraft is pointing in The main control surfaces are: ailerons, elevator, and rudder. Each of these is described in the sections below.
Ailerons Ailerons are located at the trailing edge of each wing, near the wingtips. In the photograph below, the ailerons are highlighted in purple. When an aileron is lifted, it reduces the lift on that wing. When an aileron is lowered, it increases the lift on that wing. Therefore, when one aileron is lifted and the other lowered, it causes the aircraft to roll to one side and begin to turn in that direction. For example, if the left aileron was lifted and the right aileron lowered, the aircraft would roll to the left and begin to turn to the left. The ailerons are controlled by the pilot via a stick. When the pilot moves the stick left, the left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down, causing the aircraft to roll and turn to the left.
Elevators The elevators are located on the horizontal tail. In the photograph below, one of the elevators is highlighted in blue. There are two elevators, one on either side of the tail, they move up and down together. Raising the elevators pushes down on the tail; this causes the nose to pitch up, which in turn makes the wings fly at a higher angle of attack. This generates more lift from the wing, as well as more drag. The elevators are controlled by the pilot via a stick. When the pilot pulls the stick backwards, both elevators are raised, raising the nose of the aircraft. When the pilot pushes the stick forward, the elevators go down and the nose of the aircraft drops. Rudder The rudder is located on the fin of the aircraft, highlighted in orange on the photograph below. Deflecting the rudder cause the aircraft to yaw in the same direction. For example, deflecting the rudder to the right causes the nose to yaw to the right. The rudder is controlled by the pilot via two pedals. When the pilot pushes the right pedal, the rudder deflects to the right, causing the nose of the aircraft to yaw to the right. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects to the left, causing the nose of the aircraft to yaw to the left.
Uplifting Lift is the force that allows aircraft to fly; it acts in opposition to the weight of the aircraft. Most of the lift on an aircraft is generated by the wings. The wings are designed to have a special shape, which maximises the amount of lift generated. If you cut through an aircraft wing along the width, as shown by the line in the photograph below, and looked at the cross section left behind, the wing would have the shape shown by the outline below.
Leading edge
Trailing edge
This shape is called an aerofoil and it is designed so that it can create much more lift than drag. Air flows over the wings as shown in the diagram below.
The shape of the aerofoil causes the flow of air to be deflected, creating curved streamlines. The velocity of the air has different values at different places around the wing. The air molecules move over the top surface of the wind faster than they move over the bottom surface. The pressure acting on the wing is related to the velocity. This means that the pressure on the lower surface of the wing is greater than the pressure on the upper surface. This produces a net force; the component of this force that is perpendicular to the velocity of the air is the lift force. Summary: The aerofoil deflects the flow of air The air flows quicker over the upper surface of the wing than the lower surface This creates an area of high pressure under the wing and lower pressure above the wing This means there is a greater force acting on the underside of the wing and this causes lift
Angle of Attack To understand the cause of stalling, it is important to know about the angle of attack.
In the diagram above, the angle of attack is shown by the symbol: α. α is the angle between the aerofoil and the flow of air. As the angle of attack increases, the air flowing past the wing is deflected more and this creates more lift. This is true until you reach the critical angle of attack – this is the angle beyond which there is a reduction in the amount of lift created by the aerofoil. The reason for this reduction in lift is because of a concept called separation:
As the angle of attack increases, the amount of separation increases and this reduces the amount of lift that the wing produces. At the critical angle of attack, the degree of separation is so great that any increase in the angle of attack will reduce the amount of lift produced rather than increasing it. This is called stalling. This concept is demonstrated in the activity ‘How to trim a model glider’
Move like a Marshall Test your Knowledge Answers Describe the Signal Fill in the blanks to the right of the image with what you think the signal is/ Answer – STRAIGHT AHEAD, instructing the aircraft to continue moving forward. Answer – TURN LEFT (from the pilot’s point of view). If struggling remind scouts to imagine a piece of rope attached to the wingtip.
What signal do you think he is making? Answer - TURN RIGHT (from pilot’s point of view)
Draw the Signal Draw some arrows on the figures below to show the signal described on the right. SLOW DOWN This is a ‘patting down’ motion.
TURN RIGHT (from pilot’s pojnt of view) What are those sticks? Answer They are illuminated wands used to direct aircraft in the dark.
Bird’s Eye View Activity This is a VFR chart of London. Can you spot two major airports on this map? Answer - Heathrow Airport and Gatwick Airport. London City Airport and Farnborough Airfield are also shown.
Piston Power The correct order, following the principle of suck, squeeze, bang, blow is as follows:
1
3
2
4
Jet Set Go Question: What are the main differences between a jet engine and piston engine? Answer: It is worth pointing out to the Scouts that the engines do share a lot of simlilaritites.In both there is a combustion chamber where fuel is mixed with oxygen and then ignited. Once it is ignited gas is created which expands rapidly. The major difference between the two is that in a jet engine these gases are allowed to escape and produce thrust directly by exiting the rear of the engine, directly forcing the engine forward. In a piston engine these gases are constrained which causes a piston to move, this moves a mechanism which indirectly turns a propeller or a wheel. They could also list the differences in components of jet and piston engines (pistons vs compressor/turbine etc.) The sections of the jet engine are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Intake Low pressure compression High pressure compression Combustion Exhaust Hot section Turbines Low and High pressure Combustion chambers Cold section Air inlet
Get up to Speed When an aircraft is moving through the air, not only is the aircraft itself moving, but the air itself is moving too. To understand the motion of an aircraft, you need to understand three different measures of speed: wind speed, ground speed and airspeed. Need to ensure the Scouts understand the difference between speed and velocity – this is important because… Wind speed The wind speed is the speed at which the air moves relative to a reference point on the ground. Ground speed The ground speed is the speed at which the aircraft moves relative to a reference point on the ground. Airspeed The airspeed is the relative velocity between the aircraft and the air, or the difference between the ground speed and the wind speed:
Airspeed = Ground speed – Wind speed If there was no wind blowing then the airspeed would be equal to the ground speed. If it was a windy day and the wind was blowing in the same direction that the aircraft was moving, the airspeed would be less than then ground speed. To generate lift, the aircraft must move through the air, or the air must move past the wings. If the air moves past the wings in the opposite direction to the direction the aircraft moves through the air – the thrust needed to propel the aircraft is reduced. That is why it is preferable for aircraft to take off into the wind, because by using the wind flowing over the surface of the wing, the ground speed required by the aircraft in order to take off is less.
The Sky’s the Limit The scouts should visit a place of aviation interest and, if possible, partake in a flight. A cost effective way for the scouts to experience flight is to visit a gliding club. This is also a great way for them to get ‘hands on’ with the ground operations and launching procedures. Scouts should fill out the form in the activity pack during their visit. If partaking in a flight experience it would be highly beneficial for scouts to be involved in the flight planning and pre-flight checks. Older scouts or those doing the explorer badge could be involved in planning the visit. Scouts should supplement the form in the activity pack with other notes, photos or videos, reporting back on their experience to the rest of the troop.
