Islamophobia in Western Europe - Euro-Islam

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Jun 1, 2006 - ancestors…״, the descendants of “…the horse riding raiders before Mohammed״. ...... residence of i
SECURITIZATION AND RELIGIOUS DIVIDES IN EUROPE Muslims In Western Europe After 9/11: Why the term Islamophobia is more a predicament than an explanation 1 June, 2006 Jocelyne Cesari, GSRL-Paris and Harvard University Submission to the Changing Landscape of Citizenship and Security 6th PCRD of European Commission UK: Chr!"#$%%&'(#)'!*&+"!,-#./#0!+1!'2341 Netherlands: 54+6&%# 547""&'(# 8'",!,7,&# /.+# 5!2+4,!.'# 4'9# :,3'!6# ;,79!&"# +.>#"/'9* U#"=%* c84)2* 1* "8.>%&* +,* ^+$%&".%"(* 1""+8"=%.%"('* C%&%* .15%* 1>+8(* ,8(8&%* =+8"(%&?(%&&+&#'.* 4%/#'41(#+"* (01(* 1/1#"* '1C* -&#(1#"&#"/*;%&;%(&1(+&'*(+*X8'(#=%2*1"5*=+"(1#"%5*(0&%%* "%C*+,,%"=%'I*G=('*@&%;1&1(+&)2*D"5#&%=(*D"=#(%.%"(2*1"5*:%&&+&#'(*(&1#"#"/*#"*(0%*8'%*+,* 01n1&5+8'*'8>'(1"=%'9*:0%*^+$%&".%"(*'(&%''%5*(01(*(0%*-#44*C1'*"+(*1*5#&%=(*&%';+"'%* (+*WbW*1'*#(*015*>%%"*1""+8"=%5*(01(*"%C*(%&&+&#'.*4%/#'41(#+"*C1'*(+*>%*,+&(0=+.#"/*#"* (0%*18(8."*1")C1)9** K+C%$%&*1'*(0%*@&#.%*7#"#'(%&2*:+")*-41#&*.15%*=4%1&*+"*(0%*Y*G8/8'(*MNNY2*(0%* q&84%'*+,*(0%*/1.%*1&%*=01"/#"/q*'+*(0%*-#44*%T;4#=#(4)*1#.%5*(+*.1F%*#(*.+&%*5#,,#=84(*,+&* %T(&%.#'('*(+*1>8'%*(0%*B=0%&#'0%5*,&%%5+.'#"/* (0%* /&+8;* K#n>* 8(?:10&#&* 1"5* (0%* '8==%''+&* +&/1"#'1(#+"* +,* G4? 7801X#&+8"* ?* 1"5* 4++F* 1(* C0%(0%&* (0%* /&+8"5'* ,+&* ;&+'=&#;(#+"* "%%5* (+* >%* C#5%"%5* dK#n>* 8(?:10&#&* #"* -&#(1#"* 01'* '#"=%* '1#5* (01(* #(* C+845* ,#/0(* 1")* >1"* (0&+8/0*(0%*=+8&('g9*

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The use of the descriptive term ‘asylum seeker’ will from hereon be used as a representative term that includes not only asylum seekers but also political refugees and immigrants unless otherwise directed.

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Amended from Christopher Allen, “Justifying Islamophobia: a post-9/11 consideration of the European Union and British contexts”, American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, vol. 21 no.3 (Summer 2004): 125. 57 Examples gleaned from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n%"'* 01$%* (0%* &#/0(* (+* =&#(#=#n%* (0%* $148%'2* #5%1'* 1"5* >%4#%,'* +,* +(0%&'2* %$%"*#,*(0%)*5+*'+*#"*1*5%.%1"#"/*+&*+,,%"'#$%*.1""%&9* * D"* (0%* '%=+"5* ;41=%2* (0%* (%&.* BD'41.+;0+>#1%5'* &%'%1&=0* +"* 1"(#?78'4#.* 5#'=+8&'%*C#(0#"*(0%*&%'%1&=0*(&15#(#+"*+,*#5%+4+/)*=&#(#H8%9 OVO *:0#'*"%+?.1&T#'(*1;;&+1=0* (+* 5#'=+8&'%* 1"14)'#'* 1&/8%'* (01(* e#5%+4+/)* #'* (0%* .%1"'* >)* C0#=0* (0%* &84#"/* =41''* =+"'+4#51(%'*1"5*&%;&+58=%'*#('*15$1"(1/%*(0&+8/0*&%;&%'%"(#"/*#('*;1&(#14*1"5*'%=(#+"14* #"(%&%'('*1'*(0%*8"#$%&'14*#"(%&%'('*+,*(0%*%"(#&%*=+..8"#()f*dE%(0%&%44*1"5*@+((%&*ORRMI* M[g9*D5%+4+/#=14*5#'=+8&'%'2*(0%"2*1&%*,14'%2*.#'4%15#"/*+&*#448'#+"1&)2*1"5*(0%)*'0+845*>%* B8".1'F%5*1'*1"*#448'#+")*B=&#(#=14*&%'%1&=0%&'%%"*B8".1'F%5#=+&1(#+"* +,* (0%* 0);+(0%'#'* (01(*1*';%=#,#=*#5%+4+/#=14*5#'=8&'#$%*,+&.1(#+"*=+"(#"8%'*(+*>%*0%/%.+"#=9 OVM * D"*(0%*(0#&5*;41=%2*(0%*#5%+4+/)?=&#(#=14*1;;&+1=0*(+*5#'=+8&'%*1"5*%';%=#144)*(0%* (%&.* BD'41.+;0+>#14%* 41"/81/%9* `%'%1&=0%&'* 1&%* =144%5* 8;+"* "+(* (+* >%* "1y$%2*1"5*"+(*(+*=+",8'%*(0%*&%';%=(1>4%*41"/81/%*1(*(0%*,&+"(*'(1/%*d4%*5%$1"(*5%*41*

'=z"%g* C#(0* C01(* #'* >%#"/* '1#5* >1=F'(1/%* d51"'*4%'*=+84#''%'g9* 7+&%+$%&2* (0%* #5%1* (01(* =#(#n%"'*C0+*1&(#=841(%*';%=#,#=*5#'=+8&'%'*1"5*#5%1'*1>+8(*D'41.*1&%*$#=(#.'*+,*1*B.%"(14* #44"%''#1g* %1'#4)* 4%15'* (+* (0%* 1&/8.%"(* (01(* =#(#n%"'* '0+845* %#(0%&* >%* =8&%5* +,* (0%#&* B#448'#+"'%%"*B8".1'F%54%* C#(0* (0%* >1'#=* $148%'* 1"5* ;&#"=#;4%'* +,* 5%.+=&1=)* 1"5* %H814* =#(#n%"'0#;9* -%'#5%'2* #"* 1"* #"=&%1'#"/4)* ;+41&#'%5*'+=#%(14*=+"(%T(2*(0%*=+"(#"8%5*8'%*+,*(0%*(%&.*BD'41.+;0+>#1%#"/* &%;&+58=%5* +,* (0%* B%"%.#%'* +,* D'41.+8(*D'41.*+&*1>+8(* 132

For this kind of ideological critical approaches to discourse see Van Dijk 1993, Fairclough 1992, and for a convincing critique see Wetherell and Potter 1992, and Van den Berg 1991.

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See Fortuyn Tegen de islamisering van onze cultuur. Nederlandse identiteit als fundament (Against the Islamization of our culture. The Dutch identity as foundation) (1997). Because Fortuyn argued that what was at stake were progressive values, such as gay and women’s rights, he could also mobilize progressive voters who would otherwise disagree with strong anti-immigrant political discourse (Maussen and Slijper 2006). 137 Fortuyn started his own political party in February 2002 only after being dismissed as the leader of the newly founded political party Leefbaar Nederland (Liveable Netherlands) because of his statement that Islam was a ‘backward religion’ (see Van Bruinessen 2006).

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In Dutch statistics, terms such as ‘Moroccans’ and ‘Turks’ are used both to refer to people with Moroccan or Turkish nationality, but also to people with dual nationality (e.g. Turkish and Dutch) and to people with only Dutch nationality but one of whose parents was born abroad. These numbers on nationality and ethnicity are then taken as an indicator of the number of ‘Muslims’. Recent estimates speak

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Article 1 reads: “All persons in the Netherlands shall be treated equally in equal circumstances. Discrimination on the grounds of religion, belief, political opinion, race or sex or on other grounds whatsoever shall not be permitted.” And section 1 of article 6 reads: “Everyone shall have the right to manifest freely his religion or belief, either individually or in community with others, without prejudice to his responsibility under the law”.

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143

See Maussen (2006), chapter 2. It was typical for the Dutch approach that a thorough study was made as early as 1983 to see what legal obstacles existed which might prevent the equal treatment of new ethnic and religious minorities. See H.Beune and A.Hessels Minderheid – Minder Recht. Een inventarisatie van bepalingen in de Nederlandse

144

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wet- en regelgeving waarin onderscheid wordt gemaakt tussen allochtonen en autochtonen (1983) (see also Penninx 2005). 145 Moreover, there have been subventions for the establishment of post-colonial Moluccan families, who had been soldiers in the Royal Dutch Indian Army. These mosques were built in 1986 and 1990. State support was motivated in terms of a ‘moral duty’ of the former colonial state towards the Moluccan families.

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147

These objectives were laid down in the Contourennota integratiebeleid etnische minderheden (1994) (see Entzinger 2003: 72ff.). 148 See Parliamentary Inquiry Committee (Tijdelijke Commissie Onderzoek Integratiebeleid), 5 volumes, 2004.

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149

See Integratiebeleid betreffende etnische minderheden in relatie tot hun geestelijke bedienaren (19971998). Tweede Kamer vergaderjaar 97-98, code 25919, issue 2. 150 See “Brief van de minister voor Grote Steden en Integratiebeleid”. Kamerstuk II 1999/2000 code 2633, issue 13. 151 See “Verdonk onderzoekt verbod op Burka” in De Volkskrant, October 10, 2005.

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:%&&+&#'.%>%'(#"/* %"* p%#4#/0%#5g9* G* =%"(&14* ]1(#+"14* P++&5#"1(+&* +,* Q#/0(* 1/1#"'(* :%&&+&#'.* d]1(#+"114* P++&5#"1(+&* :%&&+&#'.%>%'(#"/g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o*#.;&+$#"/*(0%*=1;1=#()*+,*'+=#%()2*#"5#$#5814'*1"5*=+..8"#(#%'*(+*

154

See http://www.nctb.nl/ See also a number of publications by the Central Intelligence and Security Service (AIVD), notably Political Islam in the Netherlands (by the Internal Security Service, 1998) and From Dawa to Jihad. The various threats of radical Islam against the democratic rule of law (2004) and recently Violent Jihad in the Netherlands. Current trends in the Islamist terrorist threat (2006). All available on: https://www.aivd.nl/ 156 Ministry for Aliens Affairs and Integration “Nota weerbaarheid tegen radicalisering van moslimjongeren” (March 25, 2005) and Ministry of Justice “Nota radicalisme en radicalisering” (August 2005). 155

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157

See also”‘Apologie du terrorisme’ and ‘incitement to terrorism’” Council of Europe, 2004. Cited in “Er is vandaag een Amsterdammer vermoord” in Het Parool, December 27, 2004. 159 Piet Hein Donner “Acute dreiging vraagt om antwoord” in de Volkskrant, November 16, 2004. See also Britta Böhler ‘Beseft Donner wel wat hij zegt?’ in De Volkskrant November 27, 2004. 160 “Arrestatie moslims opruiend” in Het Parool November 11, 2005. 158

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See Human Rights Watch “Fleeting Refuge: the triumph of efficiency over protection in Dutch asylum policy’ (2003): available at www.hrw.org

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See ‘Immigrants have to pass a racy test. Netherlands show its liberal culture’, March 16, 2006: available at: http://euro-islam.info/pages/nether.html 165 See Channel 4, Special report ‘Troubled Dutch’ March 16, 2006. Available at: http://www.channel4.com/news/special-reports/special-reports-storypage.jsp?id=1964 Last accessed May 15, 2006. 166 See “Anti-Islamic reactions in the EU after the terrorist acts against the USA. The Netherlands” (2002), also “Moslim is een besmet word. De interetnische wrijvingen in Nederland na ‘911’” (in NRC-

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See also EUMC “Anti-Islamic reactions in the EU after the terrorist acts against the USA. The Netherlands” (2002), 175 Being Jozias van Aartsen (leader of the Liberal Right (VVD) in the Parliament), Job Cohen (the Mayor of Amsterdam) and Ahmed Aboutaleb (the alderman for diversity in Amsterdam and a practicing Muslim of Moroccan descent) (see Uitermark and Hajer 2005).

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,+=8''%5* .+&%* +"* =84(8&14* 1''#.#41(#+"9 OWZ * :0#'* (0%.%* C1'* ,8&(0%&* 5%$%4+;%5* >)* @#.* Q+&(8)"* #"* 0#'* =+48."'* #"* (0%* C%%F4)* 34'%$#%&* 1"5* #"* 0#'* ORRW* >++F* :%/%"* 5%*

#'41.#'%&#"/* $1"* +"n%* =84(88&9* ]%5%&41"5'%* #5%"(#(%#(* 14'* ,8"51.%"(* dG/1#"'(* (0%* #'41.#'1(#+"*+,*+8&*=84(8&%9*:0%*i8(=0*#5%"(#()*1'*,+8"51(#+"g9** U#"=%*MNNO2*5#'=8''#+"'*+"*D'41.*01$%*=+"(#"8%5*(+*&1/%*#"*;+4#(#=14*5%>1(%*#"*(0%* ]%(0%&41"5'9* G"* #.;+&(1"(* ,#/8&%* #"* (0%'%* 5#'=8''#+"'* #'* G)11"* K#&'#* G4#2* 1* U+.14#?>+&"* &%,8/%%*C0+*4%,(*(0%*U+=#14*i%.+=&1(*@1&()*d@$5Gg*(+*X+#"*(0%*L#>%&14*`#/0(*dppig2*1"5* C0+* >%=1.%* 1* .%.>%&* +,* ;1&4#1.%"(* #"* MNNV9* :0%* ;41=%* +,* K#&'#* G4#* #"* i8(=0* ;8>4#=* 5%>1(%* #'* %T(&%.%4)* =+.;4%T* 1"5* =+"(#"8+8'4)* #",41.%'* ;8>4#=* +;#"#+"9* :0#'* ';%=#,#=* ;+'#(#+"*+,*K#&'#*G4#*#"*i8(=0*5%>1(%*+"*D'41.*#'*&%41(%5*(+*(C+*,1=(+&'I* ,#&'(2*0%&*';%=#,#=* '8>X%=(?;+'#(#+"#"/* #"* i8(=0* ;8>4#=* 5%>1(%o* '%=+"52* (0%* =+"(%"(* +,* 0%&* ;+4#(#=14* .%''1/%'2*0%&*=&#(#H8%*+,*D'41.*1"5*(0%*&0%(+&#=14*'()4%*#"*C0#=0*'0%*=0++'%'*(+*%T;&%''* 0%&*+;#"#+"'9*D*C#44*>&#%,4)*=+..%"(*8;+"*(0%'%*1';%=('9 OWW ** U#"=%* 0%&* %&8;(#+"* #"(+* (0%* i8(=0* ;8>4#=* 5%>1(%* #"* (0%* 18(8."* +,* MNNO2* G)11"* K#&'#* G4#2* 01'* '8>X%=(?;+'#(#+"%5* 0%&'%4,* 1"5* 01'* >%%"* '8>X%=(?;+'#(#+"%5* >)* +(0%&'* #"* $1&#+8'*C1)'9*U0%*01'*>%%"*'%%"*1'*(0%*B,%.14%*p+4(1#&%*,+&*78'4#.'*#"*(0%*]%(0%&41"5'+8(*D'41.*1"5*$#+4%"=%*1/1#"'(*C+.%"I*e0%&*'(1(8'*1'* $#=(#.*+,*D'41.#=*$#+4%"=%*/#$%'*0%&*1"*18(0+&#(1(#$%*1"5*;+C%&,84*$+#=%*#"*&%'#'(#"/*(0%* '+8&=%* +,* (01(* $#+4%"=%9* :0&+8/0* 0%&* >#+/&1;0#=14* 1==+8"('* 1"5* %''1)'2* C0%&%* '0%* B';%1F'*+8(+8(*0%&*=#&=8.=#'#+"*1"5*1&&1"/%5*.1&/%2*'0%*>%=+.%'*(0%*4%/#(#.1(%* 1==8'%&* (0&+8/0* 0%&* +C"* C#("%''#"/* +,* (0%* $#+4%"=%f* di%* L%%8C* 1"5* p1"* E#=0%4%"* MNNYI* VVNg9* U0%* 01'* 14'+* =41#.%5* (+* >%* (0%* $+#=%* +,* +;;&%''%5* 78'4#.* C+.%"* #"* (0%* ]%(0%&41"5'* C0+* =1""+(* ';%1F* +&* C0+* 1&%* 1,&1#5* (+* 5+* '+9* :0#'* =41#.* +,* >%#"/* (0%* &%;&%'%"(1(#$%*+&*';+F%'C+.1"*+,*B+;;&%''%5*78'4#.*C+.%"*#"*(0%*]%(0%&41"5'%=18'%*.1")*78'4#.*C+.%"*5+*"+(*#"*1")*C1)*,%%4*&%;&%'%"(%5*>)* K#&'#*G4#9*E0%"*5#'=8''#"/*(0%*,#4.* U8>.#''#+"*#"*(0%*"%C'*;&+/&1.* ]+$1*dJ=(+>%&*OV2* MNN[g*C#(0*,+8&*78'4#.*C+.%"*#"*1*'0%4(%&*0+.%2*(0%*;&+>4%.1(#=*1';%=('*+,*(0#'*=41#.* +,* &%;&%'%"(1(#+"* >%=1.%* ;1#",844)* =4%1&9* E0%"* +"%* +,* (0%* 1>8'%5* C+.%"* 4%,(* (0%* 176

See Frits Bolkestein, ‘On the collapse of the Soviet Union’, Address to the liberal International conference, September 6 1991. 177 For more elaborate discussion see Loewenthal 2003; Prins 2004; De Leeuw en Van Wichelen 2005.

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5#'=8''#+"*1&/8#"/*(01(*K#&'#*G4#*C1'*"+(*#"(%&%'(%5*#"*1")*5#14+/8%2*K#&'#*G4#*&%';+"5%5* C#(0*1*5#'.#''#$%*/%'(8&%*'1)#"/*B+F1)2*/++5>)%*(0%"%=+.%*1"*7@*,+&*(0%*L#>%&14*`#/0(*#'*8'%5*(+*'8//%'(* (01(* (0%* L%,(* ;1&(#%'* 1&%* "+(* /%"8#"%4)* =+"=%&"%5* 1>+8(* B(0%* '8;;&%''#+"* +,* 78'4#.* C+.%"&%1F* )+8&* "%=F)*'8;;+&(%&'*1"5*+;;+"%"('*+,* G)11"* K#&'#* G4#* .1F%'* ;8>4#=* 5%>1(%* 1>+8(* 0%&* '(1(%.%"('* 1"5* +;#"#+"'* %T(&%.%4)* =+.;4%T9** :0%* =+"(%"(* +,* K#&'#* G4#%&14*1&%*51"/%&+8'2* >%=18'%* B4#>%&14* 78'4#.'1"* +"* 5%"+.#"1(#+"14* '=0++4'* 1"5* %';%=#144)* +,* 78'4#.* '=0++4'* #"* (0%* ]%(0%&41"5'9* 7+&%+$%&2* #"* c8"%* MNN[* '0%* #"'#'(%5* (01(* B144* 78'4#.'%* 178

See for example Ayaan Hirsi Ali ‘Strijd tegen absolute Allah is geboden’ in NRC Handelsblad November 8, 2005.

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1;;4)#"/*,+&*1*X+>*C0#=0*015*B1*'%=8&#()*&#'F1((4%* 1/1#"'(* D'41.* .15%* 1* '#.#41&* .#'(1F%* 1'* (0%* -&#(#'0*@&#.%*7#"#'(%&*]%$#44%*P01.>%&41#"*5#5*C0%"*38&+;%*C1'*=+",&+"(%5*C#(0*(0%*&#'%* +,* (0%* ]1n#'* #"* (0%* ORVN'9* P#(#"/* P08&=0#44&1"5* ]1C#X"* 14'+* &%;%1(%54)* 1&/8%* (01(* D'41.* #'* 1* (0&%1(* (+* E%'(%&"* =#$#4#'1(#+"9* :0#'* 01'* 4%5* '+.%* ;+4#(#=#1"'2* "+(1>4)* ^%%&(* E#45%&'2* (+* 1'F* ,+&* (0%* 5%;+&(1(#+"* +,* 7+&+==1"* )+8(0* C0+* %"/1/%5* #"* ;%(()* =&#.%2* '1)#"/I* B#,* (0%)* 01$%* (C+* ;1'';+&('* C%* '0+845* (1F%* >1=F* (0%* i8(=0* ;1'';+&(* 1"5* %T;%4* (0%.* (+* 7+&+==+4%*#"* (0%* i8(=0* .%5#12* >%=18'%* +,* (0%#&* '(1(%.%"(* +"* D'41.9* G45%&.1"* 71&=+* @1'(+&'* +,* L#$%1>4%* `+((%&51.* dL%%,>11&*`+((%&51.g* ';+F%* +8(* #"* MNNM* 1/1#"'(* (0%* %'(1>4#'0.%"(* +,*.+'H8%'*#"*1*B5%$#1(#"/*'()4%1(%*1>+8(*D'41.*#"*`+((%&51.9*G==+&5#"/*(+*p1"*5%"*G"F%&*B78'4#.'%*BC0+&%'*1")0+C&81&)* MNNZ* (0%* '1.%* 145%&.1"* 1&/8%5* (01(* (0%&%* '0+845* >%* 1* '%&#+8'* ;+4#(#=14* 5#'=8''#+"* 1>+8(* (0%* ;+''#>#4#(#%'* +,* .1F#"/* 1>+&(#+"* +>4#/1(+&)2* ,+&* #"'(1"=%* ,+&* BG"(#44%1"* (%%"1/%* .+(0%&'1(%9* G* "8.>%&* +,* 4#>%&14* 1"5* =+"'%&$1(#$%*+;#"#+"?.1F%&'*01$%*.15%*1*=1&%%&*#"*(0%*i8(=0*;8>4#=*5%>1(%*>)*>1'0#"/* D'41.9*G*;&+,%''+&*+,*;0#4+'+;0)*AK%&.1"*@0#4#;'%*A*01'*.1#"(1#"%5*(01(*78'4#.'*#"*(0%* ]%(0%&41"5'*150%&%*(+*$148%'*C0#=0*1&%*=01&1=(%&#'(#=*+,*1*B(&#>14*=84(8&%14* =84(8&%4%* C#(0* (0%* '%;1&1(#+"* +,* '(1(%* 1"5* =08&=0* +&* C#(0*BE%'(%&"*=#$#4#'1(#+"&%%5'* $#+4%"=%* d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

integration in the Netherlands. The members of the French committee concluded after an interview with the ‘researcher’ Philipse that there was a danger of ‘tribalism’ in the Netherlands. 187 For discussions about the role of intellectuals in public debate about Islam, see Prins 2004; Van Bruinessen 2006; Peters 2006. 188 See Brief aan de Tweede Kamer van Minister van Boxtel, kamerstuk II 1999/2000, code 2633, issue 13.

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189

This image needs to be handled carefully though, because the Turkish Muslim organisations in the Netherlands are administered by a highly qualified staff (see Sunier 1996; Canatan 2001).

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