Why focus on reducing women's imprisonment? - Prison Reform Trust

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Why focus on reducing women’s imprisonment? Prison Reform Trust briefing February 2017

Key points •

The women’s prison population in England and Wales more than doubled between 1995 and 2010 - from under 2,000 women to over 4,000. The numbers have since declined by over 10% – from 4,279 women in April 2012 to 3,821 in April 2016. But the UK still has one of the highest rates of women’s imprisonment in Western Europe.

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Women are a small minority of those in the criminal justice system, representing less than 5% of the prison population, and are easily overlooked in policy, planning, and services - they have been described as 'correctional afterthoughts'.

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The drivers and patterns of women’s offending are generally different from men’s.

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Most of the solutions to women’s offending lie in improved access to community based support services, including women’s centres. These enable women to address underlying problems which may lead to offending but which the criminal justice system cannot solve.

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The impact of imprisonment on women, more than half of whom have themselves been victims of serious crime, is especially damaging and their outcomes are worse than men’s.

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Most women have neither a home nor a job to go to on release.

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Women are much more likely to be primary carers, with children far more directly affected by a prison sentence as a result. The real battle started when I got out. Everything - home, re-establishing relationships, job. Imprisonment just exploded a bomb into every aspect of my life... A mother with experience of prison.

The Prison Reform Trust has long called for a reduction in women’s imprisonment and a step change in how the criminal justice system responds to women. March 2017 marks ten years since the Corston Report on Women with Particular Vulnerabilities in the Criminal Justice System, and five years since the Angiolini Commission on Women Offenders (Scotland). These and many other inquiries and reports have all concluded that prison is rarely a necessary, appropriate or proportionate response to women who get caught up in the criminal justice system.1 The government’s White Paper on Prison Safety and Reform (November 2016) recognises “that many female offenders are often vulnerable members of society. There is evidence that a specific approach is most effective in helping women to…turn their lives around.” It commits to publishing a strategy to “reduce the number of women offending and ending up in custody, including through early and targeted interventions.”2 This briefing presents key facts and evidence about women’s experience of criminal justice, makes the case for a distinct and gendered approach, and highlights opportunities for accelerating progress.


A note on the numbers Prison statistics can be confusing. There is a difference between a ‘snapshot’ of the prison population at any one time and the total intake (receptions) of individuals into prison over the course of a year. In England and Wales, there are now around 3,900 women in prison at any one time,3 but around 9,000 women a year are received into prison for the first time, either on remand or under sentence.4 The former ‘snapshot’ figure will have a higher proportion of those on longer sentences, while the latter annual receptions figure includes all those who have been sent to prison even for very short periods. Most of the information here is for England and Wales, as criminal justice is devolved in Scotland and Northern Ireland, but sometimes UK wide data is included.

What are the significant differences between women and men in prison? Offending profile •

8,562 women were sent to prison in the year to June 2016, either on remand or to serve a sentence. 84% of sentenced women entering prison had committed a non-violent offence (compared to 76% of men).5

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More women are sent to prison to serve a sentence for theft than for violence against the person, robbery, sexual offences, fraud, drugs, and motoring offences combined.6

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In 2015, 80% of female theft offences were for shoplifting.7 However, encouragingly, the number of women in prison serving a sentence for theft and handling offences decreased by 9% in the 12 months to June 2016.8

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Women’s offending is more likely than men’s to be prompted by their relationships. Nearly half of women in prison (48%) questioned for the Surveying Prisoner Crime Reduction (SPCR) survey reported having committed offences to support someone else’s drug use compared to 22% of men.9

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A Cabinet Office study found that 28% of women’s crimes were financially motivated compared to 20% of men’s.10 Earlier research on mothers in custody found that 38% attributed their offending to ‘a need to support their children’, single mothers being more likely to cite a lack of money as the cause of their offending than those who were married.11

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Women are more likely than men to be in prison under sentence for a first offence. Sentenced women (22%) were nearly twice as likely as men (12%) to have no previous convictions or cautions.12

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It is important to note that while many women appear in Court following arrest and charge a great many more women are prosecuted for non-criminal offences. This includes TV licence evasion, welfare fraud, fare evasion and sanctions relating to the non-attendance of children at school. Because these cases are not dealt with by the police there is no option to use an out of court disposal.

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TV licence evasion accounted for 36% of all prosecutions for women, but only 6% for men. In 2015, 70% of all the 189,349 defendants prosecuted for this offence were women.13 2


Women received into prison •

Women in prison are more likely than men to be on remand (i.e. not convicted of an offence and therefore presumed innocent) - 45% of women entering prison in 2015 did so on remand.14 Less than half of women remanded and subsequently found guilty are given a prison sentence (71% of those remanded in the magistrates’ courts and 41% of those remanded by the Crown Courts did not receive a custodial sentence).15

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Women are much more likely than men to be serving short sentences. In the year to June 2016, 63% of sentenced women entering prison were serving six months or less compared to 47% of men.16 In 1993 only a third of women were given these very short sentences.

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The number of women entering prison on short sentences (6 months or less) rose by 6% last year, whilst the number of women sentenced to between 6 and 12 months decreased by 16% between the first quarter of 2015 and the same period in 2016.17

Abuse and trauma •

Women in prison have often been victims of much more serious offences than the ones they are accused of committing. More than half (53%) report having experienced emotional, physical or sexual abuse as a child compared to 27% of men.18 57% of women report having been victims of domestic violence.19 Because many women fear disclosing abuse, both figures are likely to be an underestimate.20

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Women can become trapped in a vicious cycle of victimisation and criminal activity. Their situation is often worsened by poverty, substance dependency or poor mental health.21 Leaving an abusive relationship can be risky - the period when a woman is planning or making her exit is often the most dangerous for her and her children.22

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31% of women in prison spent time in care as children compared with 24% of men.23

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Women (49%) are more likely than men (29%) to report needing help with a drug problem on entry to prison.24 Women prisoners are also more likely than men to associate drug use with their offending.

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Women are nearly twice as likely as men in prison to be identified as suffering from depression (65% compared to 37%), and more than three times as likely as women in the general population (19%).25 Almost a third (30%) of women in custody had a psychiatric admission prior to entering prison.26 46% of women prisoners report having attempted suicide at some point in their lives. This is twice the rate of male prisoners (21%) and more than seven times higher than the general population (6%).27

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Alcohol is a significant factor in women’s offending. 59% of women prisoners who drank alcohol to excess four weeks before custody felt they had a problem with alcohol, 52% thought their drinking was out of control and 41% wished they could stop.28

Race and ethnicity •

11% of women in prison are foreign nationals.29 Some are known to have been coerced or trafficked into offending.30

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In England and Wales, 19% of the women’s prison population are black or minority ethnic compared to 14% of the general women’s population.31 Black British women make up 10% of the women’s prison population – three times higher than the 3% they comprise of the general women’s population.32

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Analysis conducted for the Lammy Review of Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic (BAME) representation in the Criminal Justice System (2016) found that black women were twice as likely as white women to receive a custodial sentence in the Crown Court for drugs offences. Asian and other minority ethnic women were over 40% more likely than white women to be convicted at magistrates’ court.33 4


Mothers in prison •

Women in prison are far more likely than men to be primary carers of children. The SPCR survey found that six in ten women in prison had (on average two) dependent children.34 One fifth are lone parents before imprisonment.

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Women’s imprisonment results in an estimated 17,240 children being separated from their mothers each year.35 For eight out of ten children, it’s the first time they have been separated from their mother for more than a day or so.36

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Fewer than one in ten children are cared for by their father when a mother goes to prison, and only 5% remain in their own home.37 40% are cared for by grandparents or other family members.38 A 2011 report found that up to 6,000 children a year are “being forgotten by the state when their mother is sent to prison.”39 An earlier study found that 42 women (3% of those interviewed) in prison had no idea who was looking after their children and that 19 children under the age of 16 were looking after themselves.40

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The impact on children of parental involvement in the criminal justice system, especially prison, can be traumatic: they are twice as likely as their peers to have poor mental health (Murray et al, 2009), and are more at risk of poverty, poor health, and insecure housing and finances (Smith et al, 2007).41

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The last Criminal Justice Joint Inspection review of resettlement recommended more focus on the specific needs of women as parents.42

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In March 2016, 35 babies were with their mothers in a prison mother and baby unit (MBU).43 However, 29% of women were refused admission to an MBU in 2015/16 compared to 16% refused the previous year.44 The then Prime Minister committed to implementing alternatives to imprisonment for women with babies.45 There will always be cases where the seriousness of the offence, or the refusal of the offender to engage in other outcomes, will mean sending mothers into custody. However, sentencing guidelines are clear: the court must make sure that all other avenues have been explored before resorting to custody. Malcolm Richardson JP, National Chairman Magistrates Association46

Impact of imprisonment on women •

Women are imprisoned further from home and receive fewer visits. This adversely affects their capacity to maintain relationships and family contact. While women are held on average 64 miles from home (compared to 50 miles for men),47 for many women the distances are much greater, adding to the difficulty and expense of prison visits. In HMP Eastwood Park, where women from South Wales are commonly sent, 20% of women are over 150 miles from home.48

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Since the closure of HMP Holloway in June 2016 there is no women’s prison in London. The final Independent Monitoring Board on HMP Holloway reported that women were anxious about moving further from home and worried “that their families and children might not be able to visit them as often or at all.”49 5


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Research suggests half of all women on remand receive no visits compared to a quarter of men.50 Prisoners who receive no visits are significantly more likely to reoffend than others.51

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Women are much more likely than men to harm themselves whilst in prison, accounting for 19% of self-harm incidents despite comprising just 5% of the prison population.52 The reasons for this include women’s histories of sexual abuse and trauma, their guilt and distress at separation from their children, and mental illness.53

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Between January 2015 and December 2016, 30 women died in custody; twothirds of these deaths were self-inflicted. The recent significant and rapid increase in women’s deaths in prison is under investigation.54

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Many women lose their homes and possessions as a result of imprisonment and 60% of women do not have homes to go to on release.55 Without accommodation, it is much harder to get a job or training placement, arrange benefits or care for children.

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Imprisonment usually compounds a woman’s problems, and short custodial sentences have the worst reoffending outcomes. Overall, 48% of women leaving prison are reconvicted within one year but for those serving sentences of less than 12 months, the reconviction rate rises to 61%.56 Women released from custody are also more likely to reoffend (and reoffend sooner) than those serving community sentences.57

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Women are much less likely than men to have a job to go to on release from prison (8.5% compared to 26.2%)58

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Research evidence confirms that long prison sentences can be more painful and traumatising for women.59 It is totally unacceptable that we have the second highest female prison population in northern Europe. This government continues to prioritise efforts to reduce the number of men and women serving custodial sentences. Michael Matheson, Cabinet Secretary for Justice, Scottish Government February 2016.60

Women recalled to prison People can be recalled to custody if they breach the conditions of their licence whilst under supervision on release. The number of women recalled to prison rose dramatically after commencement of the Offender Rehabilitation Act 2014, which introduced postcustody supervision for people serving sentences of less than 12 months.61 •

Since the end of 2014 there has been a 68% increase in women being recalled to custody following their release.62 On 30 June 2016, women recalled to custody accounted for nearly 8% of the total women’s prison population (288 women).63 6


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The HMIP report of HMP Bronzefield (April 2016) found that nearly 10% of the women in the prison were there on recall and that many did not understand their licence conditions.64

What alternatives to custody do courts have? •

The proportion of women dealt with by out of court disposal is small and has fallen in recent years. The use of out of court disposals for women peaked in 2007 (96,457) and then began to fall at a significant rate thereafter. In 2015, 36,239 out of court disposals were given to women, a decrease of over 62%.65

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Women comprise about 15% of individuals being supervised on community orders or suspended sentence orders. There is a smaller proportion of women than men from Black and Minority Ethnic communities being supervised in the community (12.2% compared to 16.8%).66

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There has been a year on year rise in the use of suspended sentence orders and a decline in the use of community orders. In 2006, 3,467 women were given suspended sentences rising to 7,097 in 2015. By contrast, between 2006 and 2015 the number of women receiving community orders dropped from 12,041 to 9,338.67

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Academic analysis has shown that outcomes for women who are given community orders are significantly better than for those sent to prison, with 55.8% of women released from prison reoffending within a year compared to 26% of those commencing a community order.68

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Women are more likely (95%) than men (76%) to complete their community order or licence period supervision successfully.69

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The extent to which community sentences outperform short spells in prison with respect to reoffending is greater for women (9.7%) than for men (7%).70

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Evaluations of women’s community services have shown that they can reduce reoffending71 and provide effective support programmes for women who offend and those who are at risk of offending.72 A Ministry of Justice study found that the one year reoffending rate for 597 women receiving support provided by Women’s Centres in England was 30% compared with 35% for a group of similar women who did not receive such support.73

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The HM Inspectorate of Probation’s thematic review of services in the community for women who offend (2016) found that “Women’s centres are particularly vulnerable and some have already lost funding, yet they have an important role to play. We found cases where they had been pivotal in turning women away from crime and helping them to rebuild their lives.”74

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A women’s triage project in Hull reported a 46% reduction in the re-arrest rate of women over a 12-month follow up period. The success of this scheme has led to Humberside Police piloting a similar model for adult young offenders.75 7


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In an evaluation of sixteen women’s community justice services (WCJS) in Scotland, most of the women (83%) had made progress, and WCJSs were found highly effective in helping to stabilise women’s lives and promote readiness to change.76

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The holistic approach taken by Women’s Centres enables women to achieve positive outcomes in multiple areas, for example health, education, relationships, resilience, and social integration.77

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Deferring sentence to allow for restorative justice or enable an individual to demonstrate engagement with a specific requirement is a valid and useful sentencing option.78 The Restorative Justice Council recommends that more women who offend should be offered a chance to take part in appropriate restorative justice programmes and these should be delivered by women’s centres.79

What options are there for those who appear in court repeatedly? The number of ‘prolific’ women offenders is small. Home Office research found that a quarter of male offenders and 8% of women offenders had four or more convictions – and these offenders account for the majority of all recorded crime.80 Instead of pushing women through a revolving door of prison and reoffending, community sentences offer a practical approach to tackling the root causes of their offending.

What about those who pose a danger to the public? For a minority of women who offend, custody will be the only option. Small custodial units, designed specifically for women and located in their communities, which deliver rehabilitation and programmes tailored to their specific needs, would be more effective and would enable them to maintain relationships with children and family members to promote active resettlement. Meanwhile, supporting the development of women’s centres and services will enable more women to be managed constructively in the community.

How much would a different approach cost the taxpayer? There are compelling economic reasons to support and develop alternative approaches: • The average cost of keeping a woman in prison for a year is £42,76581 compared to a Community Order cost of £2,800 per year and an average of £1,360 per woman for standalone holistic community-based services.82 •

Research by the independent think tank the New Economics Foundation (NEF) found that if alternatives to prison reduce reoffending by just 6%, the necessary expenditure would be recouped in a year.83 The benefits are worth more than £100 million over a ten-year period.84 The NEF found that money invested in supportfocused alternatives to prison generates significant benefits for women and their children, victims, and society over ten years.85

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Imprisoning mothers for non-violent offences costs the state more than £17 million over a ten-year period as a result of the increased likelihood of their children becoming NEET (not in education, employment or training) and therefore having poorer longterm prospects. Non-custodial sentences lead to additional savings to the state.86 8


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Women Centred Working estimated a cost of £4,120 to support one woman to achieve positive outcomes over a two year period compared to the cost of £69,041 for local authority services.87

Reducing Women’s Imprisonment – the challenge remains •

The Justice Select Committee inquiry into women offenders (2013) concluded that “prison is an expensive and ineffective way of dealing with many women offenders who do not pose a significant risk of harm to public safety” and called for “a significant increase in residential alternatives to custody as well as the maintenance of the network of women’s centres” which are seen as “more effective, and cheaper…than short custodial sentences.”88

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Equality does not mean that everyone should be treated the same. Where the circumstances and needs of women and men are different, distinct approaches may be required to achieve equitable outcomes and the Equality Act 2010 allows womenonly or women-specific services.89 The Public Sector Equality Duty requires public services, including those delivered by the private and voluntary sector, to assess and meet the different needs of women and men.90 However, the Justice Committee concluded that “the duty does not appear to have had the desired impact on the provision of gender specific services, or on broader policy initiatives.”91

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Section 10 of the Offender Rehabilitation Act 2014 amended the Offender Management Act 2007 to give women’s services a statutory foothold, placing a duty on the Secretary of State for Justice to ensure that arrangements for supervision or rehabilitation identify specific need and so make appropriate provision for women.

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The UK is signed up to the United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-Custodial Measures for Women Offenders (the Bangkok Rules) which require that the distinctive needs of women be recognised. The Rules stress the importance of providing physical and psychological safety for women and mandate the provision of diversionary measures and sentencing alternatives, “taking account of the history of victimisation of many women offenders and their caretaking responsibilities.”92

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The UN Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women visited the UK in 2014 and raised concerns over the disproportionate number of black and minority ethnic (BME) women in prison, the number of women who have been subjected to violence prior to their imprisonment, and the number of young women who are incarcerated. She called for the development of “gender-specific sentencing alternatives” and recognition of “women’s histories of victimisation when making decisions about incarceration.”93

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Opportunities to accelerate the reform agenda •

The Ministerial Advisory Board on Female Offenders provides the mechanism for a crossgovernment strategy to reduce women’s imprisonment in England and Wales.

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The Ministry of Justice Prison Safety and Reform white paper (November 2016) refers to the forthcoming women’s strategy, which will aim to “reduce the number of women offending and ending up in custody, including through early and targeted interventions.”94

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The Conservative election manifesto (2015) included a commitment to improve the treatment of women who offend, “exploring how new technology may enable more women with young children to serve their sentence in the community.”95

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The government’s refreshed Ending Violence Against Women & Girls Strategy 2016-2020 recognises for the first time the need to “support female offenders affected by domestic abuse.”96

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The closure of HMP Holloway in North London and sale of the land provides an opportunity for government to reduce the women’s prison estate and invest in services that will reduce offending and improve outcomes for women and their families healthcare, social care, housing and other specialist support for vulnerable women.

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In June 2015, Scotland’s Cabinet Secretary for Justice announced plans for a significantly smaller national unit at HMP & YOI Cornton Vale (for 80 women), and a further five regional custodial units throughout Scotland, each housing up to 20 women.97 Community consultation about the location and design of these units is underway. The Scottish Group on Women Offenders is monitoring progress against the Angiolini Commission recommendations.

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The UK’s first Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner has pledged to investigate and prosecute modern slavery and human trafficking offences and to identify the victims of these offences in his Strategic Plan for 2015-2017.98 This is an opportunity to reduce the number of foreign national women in prison who are trafficked into offending.

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The government has committed to a whole systems approach in England and Wales to achieve coherence between policy, commissioning and service delivery across, and between, criminal justice, health and social care, welfare, children’s and other community services. Increasingly, this has focused on gender-responsive support at the point of arrest, sentencing, and on release from prison.99 We want to see fewer women in custody and to promote a greater focus on early intervention, diversion and multi-agency approaches to ensure that the justice system can take proper account of the specific needs of women. Dr Phillip Lee MP, Parliamentary under-Secretary of State for Justice with responsibility for women, November 2016.100

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The Community Justice (Scotland) Act 2016 comes into effect in April 2017 and is intended to “help create a stronger community justice system based on local collaborative strategic planning and delivery.”101

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The Department of Justice Northern Ireland is developing a strategy under the Fresh Start Agreement to support providing better outcomes for vulnerable women in the criminal justice system. Mental health issues are quite prevalent among women in the criminal justice system, and a lot of women who are in prison probably should not be in prison on the basis of that kind of perspective. When I form my priorities and we get a more structured programme moving forward, I will be keen to address that. Claire Sugden MLA, Northern Ireland Minister of Justice, June 2016.102

Frequently Asked Questions Isn’t public opinion opposed to reforming the criminal justice response to women? There is evidence that the public supports efforts to reducing reoffending and welcomes many of the approaches mentioned here. An ICM poll showed that 80% of 1,000 adults surveyed strongly agreed that local women’s centres, where women address the root causes of their crime, and do compulsory work in the community, should be available.103 Some of these centres can demonstrate very low reoffending rates compared to short prison sentences.104 In another ICM poll, 73% did not think mothers who commit non-violent crime, particularly those with young children, should be locked up.105 The Prison Reform Trust commissioned a YouGov poll in November 2012 that revealed strong backing for public health measures including treatment for drug addiction, help to stop alcohol misuse, and mental health care. Once people understand the drivers to offending for many of the women in the criminal justice system, and the disproportionate impact of imprisonment on women and their children, they are often more sympathetic.

As there are so many more men than women in prison, shouldn’t we start by tackling problems in the men’s prison population? Many of the issues raised here also affect men in prison to a greater or lesser extent, and most of the Prison Reform Trust’s work relates to the majority male prison population. But history shows that unless there is a specific focus on women, they will continue to be disadvantaged as a minority within a male-oriented prison system. As well as the different factors involved in women’s offending, there are problems with the way the custodial estate is organised. For example, security classification is designed for men, and there are only two open prisons for women, restricting opportunities for women to progress and spend time on release on temporary licence (ROTL). In addition, because there are fewer women’s prisons, women are often held very far from home, making it harder to maintain family and community links. For all the reasons set out here, it makes sense to have a particular focus on women’s imprisonment.

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We welcome queries and comments on the information provided here, and plan to update and supplement the information as needed: [email protected] To stay in touch with the progress of our work to reduce the unnecessary imprisonment of women sign up for our newsletter and see www.prisonreformtrust.org.uk/women For further information about the Transforming Lives programme in Scotland and Northern Ireland contact [email protected]

The Prison Reform Trust is grateful to the Big Lottery Fund for supporting our UK-wide programme to reduce women’s imprisonment. For information about Transforming Lives see our website here. Download Brighter Futures - working together to reduce women’s offending Download Transforming Lives – reducing women’s imprisonment Download Working it Out - Employment for women offenders Download Sentencing of Mothers - discussion paper Download Home Truths - housing for women in the criminal justice system Download Leading Change - the role of local authorities in supporting women with multiple needs Upcoming publication Options on Improving Outcomes for Women at Point of Arrest, February 2017

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End notes 1

Most notably: the 2000 report of the Prison Reform Trust’s Committee on Women’s Imprisonment (the Wedderburn Report); the 2007 Review of Women with Particular Vulnerabilities in the Criminal Justice System (the Corston Report); the 2011 report of the Women’s Justice Taskforce (Reforming Women’s Justice); the Scottish Government’s Commission on Women’s Offenders in 2012; Prison Reform Trust and Soroptimist International GBI’s Transforming Lives report in 2015

2

Ministry of Justice (2016), Prison Safety and Reform London: MoJ para 28

3

Ministry of Justice (2014) Population bulletin – Weekly 6 June 2014 London: MoJ

4

Ministry of Justice (2014) Annual tables – Offender management caseload statistics 2013 London: MoJ

5

Table 2.4b, Ministry of Justice (2016) Offender Management Statistics quarterly: April to June 2016, London: MoJ

6

Table 2.4b, Ministry of Justice (2016) Offender Management Statistics quarterly: April to June 2016, London: MoJ

7

Ministry of Justice (2016), Statistics on Women and the Criminal Justice System 2015, London: MoJ

8

Table 1.2b, Ministry of Justice (2016) Offender Management Statistics London: MoJ

9

Light, M. et al (2013) Gender differences in substance misuse and mental health amongst prisoners London: MoJ

10

Cabinet Office Social Exclusion Task Force (2009) Short study on women offenders London: Cabinet Office

11

Caddle, D. & Crisp, D. (1997) Imprisoned women and mothers Home Office Research Study 162 London: Home Office

12

Table A1.18, Ministry of Justice (2015) Offender management statistics quarterly: January to March 2015 London: MoJ

13

Ministry of Justice (November 2016), Women in the Criminal Justice System 2015

14

Prison Reform Trust (Summer 2016), Bromley Briefings Prison Factfile London: PRT

15

Russell Webster (2015), Preventing the unnecessary criminalisation of women, available at:http://www.russellwebster.com/preventing-the-unnecessary-criminalisation-of-women/

16

Table 2.1, Ministry of Justice (2016) Offender Management Statistics quarterly: April to June 2016, London: MoJ

17

Table 2.4a: Sentenced admissions into prison by sentence length, age group and sex, Ministry of Justice (2016) Offender Management Statistics; see also, Ministry of Justice (2016), Statistics on Women and the Criminal Justice System 2015, London: MoJ

18

Ministry of Justice (2012) Prisoners’ childhood and family backgrounds, London: MoJ

19

Data Extracted from OASYS, In Thinking differently about female offenders. Transforming rehabilitation, Guidance Document. MOJ/NOMS 2014

20

Gelsthorpe, L., Sharpe, G., and Roberts, J. (2007) Provision for Women offenders in the community London: Fawcett Society

21

Janet Loveless (2010) Domestic Violence, Coercion and Duress, Criminal Law Review, pp. 1-3

22

Women’s Aid (2006) Why Doesn’t She Leave? available at: www.womensaid.org.uk/domestic-violence

23

Ministry of Justice (2012) Prisoners’ childhood and family backgrounds, London: MoJ

24

Light, M. et al (2013) Gender differences in substance misuse and mental health amongst prisoners London: MoJ

25

www.gov.uk/government/publications/gender-differences-in-substance-misuse-and-mental-health-amongst- prisoners—2

26

Department of Health Conference report: Sharing good practice in prison health 4/5 June 2007

27

Prison Reform Trust (Summer 2016), Bromley Briefings Prison Factfile London: PRT

28

Prison Reform Trust (2016), Bromley Briefings: Prison Factfile Autumn 2016, London: PRT

29

Table 1.7 Ministry of Justice (2016) Offender Management Statistics 2015, London: MoJ

30

Hales, L. & Gelsthorpe, L. (2012) The criminalization of migrant women Cambridge: Institute of Criminology

31

Gov.uk (31 March 2016), Offender Management Statistics Quarterly ; NomisWeb, 2011 Census data

32

Women in Prison (2011), Breaking the Cycle for Women (London: Women in Prison); NomisWeb, 2011 Census data

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33

https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/568680/bame-disproportionality-in-the-cjs.pdf

34

Hansard HC, 16 July 2012 c548W

35

Wilks-Wiffen, S. (2011) Voice of a child London: Howard League for Penal Reform. 54% of all prisoners reported having children under the age of 18. See www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/162361/prisoners-childhoodfamily- backgrounds.pdf

36

Paul Vallely (2012) ‘Mothers and Prison: The Lost Generation’, The Independent, 20 September

37

Prison Reform Trust (2013) Prison: the facts – Bromley Briefing Summer 2013 London: PRT

38

Prison Advice and Care Trust (2011) Protecting the Welfare of Children When a Parent is Imprisoned: A Report Highlighting Concerns that up to 6,000 Children a Year are Being Forgotten by the System When Their Mother is Sent to Prison London: PACT

39

Ibid

40

Research by the Revolving Doors Agency at HMP Holloway reported in Cabinet Office Social Exclusion Taskforce (2009) Short study on women offenders: Making government work better London: MoJ

41

Prison Reform Trust (2016), Leading Change: The Role of Local Authorities in Supporting women with multiple needs London: PRT

42

Criminal Justice Joint Inspection (2014) Resettlement provision for adult offenders: Accommodation and education, training and employment London: HM Inspectorate of Prisons

43

44 45

Table 6.1, Ministry of Justice (2016), Prison performance statistics 2015 to 2016, London: MOJ

Table 6.1, Ministry of Justice (2016), Prison performance statistics 2015 to 2016, London: MOJ Cameron, D. (2016) Prison Reform: Prime Minister’s speech, available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/prisonreform-prime-ministers-speech

46

Prison Reform Trust (2015), Sentencing of Mothers: Improving the sentencing process and outcomes for women with dependent children London:PRT

47

Hansard HC, 7 January 2010, c548W

48

Women in Prison (2015) State of the Estate London: WiP

49

IMB Annual Report HMP/YOI Holloway, January to June 2016, London: IMB

50

HM Inspectorate of Prisons (2000) Unjust Deserts London: TSO

51

May, C. et al (2008) Factors linked to reoffending: A one year follow up of prisoners who took part in the Resettlement Surveys 2001, 2003 and 2004 London: MoJ.

52

Ministry of Justice (January 2017) Safety in custody quarterly update to December 2016

53

Home Office (2007) The Corston Report London: Home Office

54

Independent Advisory Panel on Deaths in Custody (2016), Information collation on the recent rise in the deaths of women in

prison, see also: Ministry of Justice (January 2017) Safety in custody quarterly update to December 2016 55

Prison Reform Trust (2016), Home truths: Housing for women in the criminal justice system, London: PRT

56

Table 6.07,6.09, Ministry of Justice (2016) women and the criminal justice system 2015, London: MoJ

57

Hedderman, C., & Jolliffe, D. (2015) ‘The impact of prison for women on the edge: paying the price for the wrong decisions’, Victims and Offenders: An international journal of evidence based research, policy and practice. DOI

58

Prison Reform Trust (2016) Bromley Briefings Prison Factfile Autumn 2016 London: PRT; Prison Reform Trust (2015), Working it out: employment for women offenders, London: PRT

59

www.crimeandjustice.org.uk/news/prison-more-difficult-women-men

60

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-35544545

61

http://thejusticegap.com/2016/11/total-recall-women-returned-prison-ever/

62

Table 5.10: Ministry of Justice (2017) Offender Management Statistics quarterly July - September 2016, London: MoJ

63

Table 1.1: Prison population by type of custody, age group and sex, Ministry of Justice (2016) Offender management statistics

14


quarterly: April to June 2016, London: MoJ HM Inspectorate of Prisons (2016), HMP & YOI Bronzefield: 9 -20 November 2015 London: HMIP

64

65

Ministry of Justice (May 2016) Criminal justice system statistics quarterly: December 2015 Ministry of Justice(2016) National Offender Management Service Offender Equalities Annual Report 2015/16, London: MoJ

66

Ministry of Justice (2015), Criminal Justice System Statistics publication: Sentencing: Pivot Table Analytical Tool for England and

67

Wales 68

Hedderman, C. & Jolliffe, D. (2015) ‘The impact of prison for women on the edge: paying the price for wrong decisions’, Victims and Offenders: An international journal of evidence-based research, policy and practice D0I.

69

National Offender Management Service Offender Equalities Annual Report 2013/14

70

Ministry of Justice (2011) Compendium of reoffending statistics and analysis 2011 London: MoJ

71

Ministry of Justice (2015), Justice Data Lab Reoffending Analysis: Women’s Centres Throughout England London: MoJ Radcliffe, P. and Hunter, G. (2013) The Development and Impact of Community Services for Women Offenders: An Evaluation

72

London: ICPR available at www.icpr.org.uk/media/34025/ReportNuffieldfinal.pdf 73

https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/427388/womens-centres-report.pdf

74

HM Inspectorate of Probation (September 2016), A thematic inspection of the provision and quality of services in the community for women who offend Manchester: HMIP

75

76

http://www.barrowcadbury.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Revolving-Doors-Agency-PCC-spotlight-31.pdf Gov.Scot (2015), Evaluation of Sixteen Women’s Community Justice Services in Scotland, available at: http://www.gov.scot/resource/0048/00484422.pdf

77

http://www.womensbreakout.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2016/06/AGM-2016-whole-presentation.pdf

78

Prison Reform Trust (2015), Sentencing of Mothers: Improving the sentencing process and outcomes for women with dependent children, London: PRT p.17; s.1 Powers of the Criminal Court (Sentencing Act 2000, amended 2013)

79

Osterman, L. and Masson, I. (2016), Making restorative justice work for women who offend: A Restorative Justice Council research report, available at: https://www.restorativejustice.org.uk/resources/making-restorative-justice-work-women-who-have-offended

80

81

The Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health (2009) The Chance of a Lifetime: Preventing Early Conduct Problems and Reducing Crime London: Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health Ministry of Justice (2016) Costs per place and costs per prisoner – National Offender Management Service annual report and accounts 2015-16 management information addendum London: MoJ

82

Ministry of Justice (2012) A distinct approach: a guide to working with women offenders London: MoJ

83

new economics foundation (2008) Unlocking Value: How we all benefit from investing in alternatives to prison for women offenders London: nef

84

Ibid.

85

Ibid.

86

Ibid.

http://www.womencentredworking.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Women-Centred-Working-Taking-Forward-WomenCentred-Solutions-report-Embargoed-until-18_4_16.pdf

87

88

House of Commons Justice Committee (2013) Women offenders: after the Corston report London: TSO

89

Whitfield, L & Glynn, D.P., (June 2016), How legislation protected women only spaces and services: an overview. Available at: http://thewomensresourcecentre.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/how-legislation-protects-women-only-spaces-and-services-anoverview-june-2016-1.pdf

90

Ministry of Justice/NOMS (2012) A distinct approach: A guide to working with women offenders London: MoJ

91

House of Commons Justice Committee (2013) Women offenders: after the Corston report London: TSO

15


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